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V 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 


OX  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF 


BRICKS,  TILES,  TERRA-COTTA,  Etc. 


INCLUDING 


COMMON,  PRESSED,  ORNAMENTALLY  SHAPED  AND  ENAMELLED  BRICKS,  DRAIN  TILES, 
STRAIGHT  AND  CURVED  SEWER  PIPES,  FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  TERRA-COTTA, 
ROOFING  TILES,  FLOORING  TILES,  ART  TILES,  MOSAIC  PLATES,  AND 
IMITATION  OF  INTARSIA  OR  INLAID  SURFACES,  COMPRISING 
EVERY  IMPORTANT  PRODUCT  OF  CLAY  EMPLOYED  IN- 
ARCHITECTURE,  ENGINEERING,  THE  BLAST 
FURNACE,  FOR  RETORTS,  ETC., 

WITH  A  HISTORY  AND  THE  ACTUAL  PROCESSES  IN  HANDLING,  DISINTEGRATING,  TEMPERING, 
AND  MOULDING  THE  CLAY  INTO  SHAPE,  DRYING  NATURALLY  AND  ARTIFICIALLY, 
SETTING  AND  BURNING,  ENAMELLING  IN  POLYCHROME  COLORS,  COMPO¬ 
SITION  AND  APPLICATION  OF  GLAZES,  ETC.,  INCLUDING  FULL 
DETAILED  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  THE  MOST  MODERN 
MACHINES,  TOOLS,  KILNS,  AND  KILN- 
ROOFS  USED. 


BY 


CHARLES  THOMAS  DAVIS. 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  228  ENGRAVINGS  AND  6  PLATES. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO., 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS,  BOOKSELLERS,  AND  IMPORTERS, 
810  WALNUT  STREET. 

LONDON : 

SAMPSON  LOW,  MARSTON,  SEARLE  &  RIVINGTON, 


CROWN  BUILDINGS,  1SS  FLEET  STREET. 

1884. 


Copyright  by 


CHARLES  T.  DAVIS, 
1SS4. 


X 


COLLINS,  PRINTER. 


THE  GETTY  CENTER 
LIBRARY 


TO 

General  MONTGOMERY  C.  MEIGS,  U.  S.  Army, 


I  DEDICATE  THIS  VOLUME, 

AS  A  TESTIMONIAL  OF  RESPECT  FOR  HIS  HIGH  PERSONAL  CHARACTER, 
AND  APPRECIATION  OF  HIS  ABILITIES  AS  AN 

ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT. 


Charles  Thomas  Davis 


PREFACE. 


The  manufacture  of  bricks,  tiles,  and  terra-cotta,  as  well  as  a 
consideration  of  the  modern  methods  and  appliances  by  which 
they  are  produced,  has  never  heretofore  been  practically  treated 
in  any  work. 

Only  those  who  have  attempted  to  compile  a  technical  book 
under  such  circumstances  can  appreciate  the  labor  involved. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  present  volume  the  author,  in  default 
of  assistance  that  could  be  gathered  from  other  books  on  the  same 
subjects  as  those  herein  treated,  has  been  compelled  to  rely  prin¬ 
cipally  upon  his  experience  acquired  during  the  practice  of  his 
profession  as  an  architect,  as  the  proprietor  of  numerous  build¬ 
ings  constructed  under  his  personal  supervision,  and  also  as  a 
manufacturer  of  bricks. 

But  as  compensation  there  is  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that 
a  new  path  has  been  laid  out,  and  that  an  attempt  has  been  made 
to  penetrate  where  none  other  has  led. 

The  author  has  endeavored  to  make  the  work  interesting,  but 
at  the  same  time  he  has  not  allowed  any  matter  of  technical  value 
to  be  superseded. 

From  the  combative  manner  in  which  portions  of  the  work 
have  been  written,  it  is  probable  that  the  author  will  be  subjected 
to  criticism  in  some  quarters;  but  this  he  hopes  will  be  just, 
knowing  that  he  has  been  conscientious  in  his  utterances. 

It  would  have  been  a  pleasant  task  to  enlarge  more  fully 
upon  the  history  of  the  different  branches  of  pottery.  An 
irresistible  law  of  our  nature  impels  us  to  seek  acquaintance  with 


VI 


PREFACE. 


past  events  in  connection  with  matters  under  discussion,  not  so 
much  to  gather  practical  ideas  as  from  interest. 

The  adobes,  as  well  as  the  burned  and  enamelled  bricks  of 
Assyria  and  Chaldea,  possess  for  us  a  fascination,  telling  as  they 
do  a  history  of  high  civilization,  and  recalling  the  times  when 
the  plains  of  the  Tigris  were  densely  peopled  with  a  rich  and 
commercial  population,  when  grandeur  and  beauty  were  the  rule 
in  architecture. 

Babylon  and  Nineveh  seem  like  a  dream  of  the  past,  but  the 
great  perfection  to  which  the  art  of  enamelling  bricks  attained  in 
those  places  has  not  been  equalled  by  us. 

In  this  branch  of  knowledge  there  is  room  for  improvement, 
progress  having  been  impeded  by  the  difficulty  in  acquiring  in¬ 
formation  concerning  the  preparation  and  application  of  enamels 
to  clay  surfaces.  This  want  the  author  has  endeavored  to  supply, 
and  sincerely  hopes  that  his  efforts  will  prove  a  valuable  aid  to 
those  in  search  of  such  information,  as  well  as  other  and  more 
common  special  branches  of  brick  and  tile  making,  herein  treated. 

The  rapid  development  that  is  being  made  in  America  in  all 
branches  of  mechanics  and  the  arts  challenges  universal  admira¬ 
tion,  and  is  unsettling  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

Believing  detailed  information  regarding  the  construction  of 
the  machines  described  in  this  volume  desirable,  not  only  by 
those  who  use  but  those  also  who  manufacture  brick  and  tile¬ 
making  machinery,  the  author  has  in  the  majority  of  cases  at¬ 
tempted  to  supply  it,  and  hopes  that  some  new  ideas  will  be  sug¬ 
gested  to  those  interested. 

CHARLES  THOMAS  DAVIS. 

Washington,  D.  C., 

1114  Pennsylvania  Avenue, 

May  20,  1884. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  History  of  Bricks. 

Employment  of  Bricks ;  History  of  the  art  of  Brick-making  analogous  to 
that  of  civilization ;  Authentic  record  of  this  branch  of  pottery,  older 
than  that  of  any  other  Ceramic  production  ;  Descendants  of  the  sons  of 
Noah  being  the  first  potters  of  record  ;  Their  departure  in  this  line 
2247  B.  C . 

Progress  in  Brick-making;  Hard  labor  to  make  them;  Servitude  of  the 
Children  of  Israel  in  Egypt  making  bricks  without  straw  ;  Pictures  upon 
the  tombs  in  Thebes  .......... 

Mud  of  the  Nile,  the  only  material  in  Egypt  suitable  for  making  bricks ; 
Description  of  the  process ;  Advantage  of  being  thoroughly  burned  ; 
Bricks  in  the  Tower  of  Babel  and  walls  of  Babylon  .... 

The  buried  palaces  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  supplying  the  bricks  for  building 
the  city  of  Hillar;  Men  to-day  gathering  bricks  from  these  ruins  to  sell  to 
other  places ;  Bricks  in  the  walls  of  Bagdad  showing  the  stamp  of  the 
name  of  Nebuchadnezzar;  Red,  yellow,  and  blue  the  principal  colors  in 
Babylonish  bricks  ;  Bricks  stamped  with  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  and 
profuse  employment  of  colored  decoration  in  Babylonish  architecture ; 
Sizes  of  the  Babylonish  bricks  ........ 

Description  of  manner  of  laying  the  bricks ;  Use  of  hot  bitumen  ;  Use  of 
reed  matting  steeped  in  bitumen ;  Triangular  and  wedge-shaped  bricks 
used  in  arches  ;  Concave  and  convex-shaped  bricks  ;  Excavations  on  the 
site  of  Pithon,  the  treasure  city  of  King  Raineses  II. ;  Tremendous  store¬ 
houses  built  of  adobes,  some  without  straw ;  Bricks  found  in  Egypt  with 
the  stamp  of  Thothmes  III.,  indicating  Brick-making  as  a  monopoly  in 
ligypt .  ............ 

An  Egyptian  brick  in  the  British  Museum,  dimensions  and  weight  of;  Use 
of  colored  bricks  in  decorative  architecture  in  the  Middle  Ages  ;  The 
part  performed  by  Ruskin,  Street,  and  others  in  causing  a  revival  of  the 
taste  for  ornamental  and  polychrome  brick- work  ;  Present  development 
of  Brick-making  bids  fair  to  rival  earlier  standard  ;  Properties  of  sound 
and  thoroughly  burned  bricks  ........ 

Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Babylonia,  nurseries  of  the  Ceramic  Arts ;  Sun-dried 
bricks  found  in  those  countries  in  good  preservation  for  more  than  3000 
years;  Bricks  employed  in  construction  of  the  Great  Wall  of  China; 
Use  of  bricks  for  architectural  construction  never  extensive  in  Greece  . 


TAGE 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


PAGB 

Roman  bricks  of  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era  superior  to  those  of 
the  Greeks  ;  First  burning  of  bricks  in  kilns  credited  to  the  Romans  .  24 

Size  and  use  of  bricks  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era ;  the  change 
in  form  and  size  ..■•••••••*•  25 

Bricks  only  used  for  facing  Roman  walls;  Decline  in  the  art  of  Brick¬ 
making;  No  evidence  that  bricks  were  made  in  England  between  the 
Roman  times  and  the  13th  century;  Old  materials  used  at  Colchester 

and  St.  Alban’s  Abbey . 26 

Description  of  the  early  stone  buildings  in  Western  Europe;  No  evidence 
existing  that  bricks  were  made  at  the  time  of  Alfred  the  Great ;  Little 
Wenham  Hall  in  Suffolk  most  probably  the  earliest  brick  building  exist¬ 
ing  in  England;  Brick-making  flourished  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII. 
and  Elizabeth  .  .  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  .2/ 

Lollards’  Tower  of  Lambeth  Palace  and  the  older  portions  of  Hampton 
Court  Palace,  good  examples  of  English  brick  architecture  in  mediaeval 
times  ;  Size  of  bricks  regulated  by  Charles  I.  in  1625  ;  Tax  upon  bricks 
from  1  784  to  1850  ..........  28 

The  building  materials  of  a  town  depend  upon  the  geology  of  the  surround- 

in"  country  ;  Description  of  the  City  Hall  of  Amsterdam  .  .  .28 

Governor  W outer  Van  T wilier  erected  the  first  brick  dwelling  in  America  ; 

Wages  of  carpenters  and  brick-layers  regulated  by  Governor  Winthrop  30 
Brick-makers  in  this  country  first  recorded  in  the  Colony  of  New  Haven ; 

Their  efforts  and  failures  at  Brick-making;  Bricks  brought  from  Eng¬ 
land  for  an  iron-foundry  and  glass-house  in  Virginia  ;  Brick — a  choice 
material  for  building  in  Pennsylvania  from  its  primitive  days  ;  William 
Penn’s  description  of  a  house  to  be  built  for  a  lady  .  .  .31 

Brick-layers’  wages  in  Philadelphia  in  1705  ;  The  Old  Court  House  in  Phil¬ 
adelphia,  at  the  corner  of  Second  and  Market  Streets,  one  of  the  oldest 
public  buildings  constructed  of  brick  in  this  country  ;  Independence 

Hall  in  Philadelphia  . . .82 

Great  Meeting-house  of  Friends  corner  of  Second  and  Market  Streets  ; 

Bricks  for  foot-pavements  in  Philadelphia,  in  use  in  1719;  “Towne 
House”  in  Boston  fii’st  built  of  brick  in  1712  ;  Triangular  warehouse  in 
Boston  ...........  .33 

Bricks  brought  as  ballast  from  England  ;  Condition  of  building  in  the  Colo¬ 
nies  prior  to,  and  succeeding  the  Revolution . 34 

American  bricks  at  present  superior  to  those  of  any  other  country ;  The 
American  patent  system  stimulative  of  improvement  in  brick-making ; 

British  policy  toward  patentees . 35 

Change  of  the  English  Patent  Law  in  force  since  January  1,  1884  .  .  37 

Evils  of  the  present  English  Patent  Law  ......  38 

Some  of  the  salient  points  of  the  New  English  Patent  Law  ...  39 

Thomas  Jefferson,  the  father  of  the  American  Patent  Office  .  .  .40 

I 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


Inventions  between  1790  and  1812;  Confined  mostly  to  agricultural  and 
commercial  objects  ;  Effects  of  the  war  of  1812  upon  American  inven¬ 
tions  ;  Improvements  in  machines  for  brick-making  date  from  1840 

Description  of  early  American  Brick-machines  and  their  defects 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  different  Varieties  of  Clay,  their  Characteristics, 
Qualities,  and  Localities. 

Application  of  the  term  Clay  ;  Where  found,  and  how  clay  is  produced ; 
Qualities  in  various  localities  ........ 

Bricks  of  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  Milwaukee  ; 
Clays  of  Canada  ........... 

Composition  of  the  best  brick-clay  ;  Use  of  sand  in  brick-making ;  Oxide 
of  iron  the  component  of  clay  that  imparts  the  red  color  to  thoroughly 
burned  bricks  ........... 

The  quantity  of  sand  naturally  mixed  with  brick-clay  not  important ;  Clays 
rich  in  lime  or  alkalies  not  good  for  brick-making ;  Carbonate  of  lime, 
diffused  limestone,  and  lime  pebbles  injurious  to  clay  .... 

Oyster-shells  and  iron  pyrites  present  in  clays  ;  Clay  from  the  seashore 
will  not  burn  into  good  brick  ;  Brick  walls  covered  with  a  white  fieecy  ap¬ 
pearance  ;  Investigations  of  the  causes  of  this  phenomenon,  sometimes 
called  “  saltpetring”  or  “  whitewashing”  ...... 

Sea  sand,  unless  washed  in  fresh  water,  always  produces  the  white  ap¬ 
pearance  ;  Primary  causes  of  blotches  of  white  upon  brick  walls  . 

Objections  to  overlapping  courses  of  pressed  and  common  bricks 

Mortars  for  pressed  brick  and  for  common  brick  ;  Compositions  of  wall 
coatings ;  Method  proposed  for  obviating  efflorescence  on  pressed  brick 
walls  ............. 

Discussion  of  the  efflorescence  by  scientific  societies;  Decision  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  in  Philadelphia;  Belief  of  earlier  investi¬ 
gators  as  to  the  production  of  saltpetre  ...... 

M.  Longcatnp’s  explanation  of  the  cause  of  efflorescence  on  walls  ;  Certain 
conditions  pertaining  to  it ;  Evils  of  carbonaceous  matter  in  clay ;  Use¬ 
less  for  decorative  work  .....  ... 

Exposing  clay  to  the  action  of  the  weather;  Argillaceous  earths  suitable 
for  the  manufacture  of  bricks  ;  Loams,  pure  clays,  and  marls 

Mixing  earths  for  brick  clay  ;  Trouble  of  working  marls  ;  Explanations  of 
long  or  fat  clay  ;  “  strong  clay”  and  “  weak  clay”  .  .  .  . 

Substances  that  impair  the  plasticity  of  clay  ;  Process  of  Brick-making  in 
England;  London  bricks,  “Malms”;  Mixture  for  best  quality  of  bricks 
in  England  ............ 

Peculiarities  of  London  Brick-making ;  Process  of  clamping 


PAGE 

41 

42 

44 

45 

4G 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 


X 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Brick  burning  in  England;  “  Dutch  clinkers”  made  at  Moor,  in  South 
Holland  ;  Slime  from  the  Haarlem  Meer  ......  58 

Clay  of  superior  quality  abounds  in  Russia  ......  59 

Brick  production  in  Russia;  Brick  clays  in  France  and  Italy ;  Brick-kilns 
in  Maracaibo  .  .  .  .  .  •  •  •  •  •  .CO 

Bricks  that  float  in  water,  re-discovered  by  Giovanni  Fabroni  in  1791.  The 
material  of  their  construction  composed  of  silicious  shells  of  infusoria  .  61 

Use  of  these  light  bricks  in  constructing  powder  magazines  in  ships,  and  in 
Berlin  for  high-vaulted  ceilings  ;  Pumice-stone  detritus  and  other  va- 
rieties  of  volcanic  tufa  as  materials  for  light  bricks ;  Use  of  light  bricks 
for  fireproof  partitions  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .62 


CHAPTER  III. 

General  Remarks  concerning  Bricks;  Enamelling  Bricks  and 
Tiles  ;  Glazing  Earthenware,  etc. 

Section  I.  General  remarks  concerning  bricks,  their  sizes,  strength,  and 
other  qualities.  Use  of  the  term  “brick”;  Description  and  use  of 
adobes  ;  Pulverized  brick  as  a  cement  ......  64 

Sizes  of  American  bricks;  Shrinkage  of  bricks  in  drying;  Variation  in 
thickness  of  bricks  by  wearing  away  of  the  mould  ;  Loss  incurred  in 
shrinkage  of  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  one  course  of  bricks  .  .  65 

Necessity  of  renewing  the  brick  moulds  at  least  three  times  in  a  season  ; 

Law  in  District  of  Columbia  for  stamping  brick  moulds  ...  66 

Injurious  effects  of  using  domestic  ashes  by  London  brick-makers  ;  Nau¬ 
seating  fumes  from  burning  stacks  of  bricks  made  of  clay  mixed  with 
ashes  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .67 

Unhealthy  effects  of  London  clamps  ;  Inefficient  efforts  to  suppress  the 
nuisance  ............  68 

Bricks  weakened  by  the  use  of  fine  coal  by  the  Hudson  River  brick- 

makers  ;  Pressing  of  front  bricks . .69 

Sorting  of  pressed  bricks  ;  Average  weight  of  burned  common  bricks ; 
Variations  in  weight  caused  by  the  pressure  of  the  clay,  burning,  and 
the  use  of  different  Brick-making  machines;  Average  specific  gravity 
and  cohesive  force  per  square  inch  of  bricks,  as  given  by  Tredgold ; 
Bricks  of  less  than  400  pounds  of  cohesion  not  worth  laying ;  Good 
quality  of  brick  should  withstand  a  pressure  of  not  less  than  7000 
pounds  per  square  inch  .........  70 

Tests  made  by  direction  of  General  M.  C.  Meigs,  U.  S.  A.,  of  bricks 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  Pension  Office  at  Washington,  1).  C. ; 
a  table  of  results  of  pressure  required  to  crush  the  samples  .  .  71 

Table  showing  how  the  tested  samples  were  produced,  and  classes  of 
clays  from  which  they  were  made 


72 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


Remarks  upon  the  quality  of  clay  and  kind  of  machines  necessary  to 
make  good  bricks  .......... 

Use  of  bricks  for  aqueducts,  reservoirs,  and  pavements 
Section  II.  Enamelling  and  glazing  bricks  and  tiles  having  plain  and  un¬ 
even  surface,  earthenware,  etc.  ;  Waterproof  bricks,  with  a  vitreous 
surface,  for  damp  and  exposed  walls  ;  Use  of  resinous  compounds  ; 
Use  of  cheap  pigments  ;  Composition  of  a  glass  enamel  for  bricks 
Manufacture  of  ornamental  bricks  ;  Metallic  oxides  used  in  composi¬ 
tions  for  coloring  bricks  with  a  variety  of  colors  .... 

Oxides  for  encaustic  colors ;  Coloring  under  the  glaze  ;  Directions  for 
applying  when  the  color  is  in  the  glaze  ...... 

Metallic  oxides  employed  in  preparing  colors  especially  adapted  for  ex¬ 
pensive  decorative  purposes ;  Fine  enamel  claimed  to  have  been  dis¬ 
covered  by  Decius  W.  Clark,  of  Philadelphia  ;  Mode  of  producing 
different  colors  with  this  process  ....... 

Receipts  for  the  colors  ......... 

Special  directions  for  compounding  the  colors ;  Another  improvement 
by  Mr.  Clark  for  a  building-brick,  having  an  enamelled  surface  or  sur¬ 
faces  of  any  desired  color  ;  Preparation  of  the  enamelling  compound 
Invention  of  John  D.  Logan,  of  Philadelphia,  for  treating  bricks  to  col¬ 
oring  matter  and  glaze,  allowing  a  choice  of  colors  and  shades  at  will ; 
Solution  “White  body  or  Slip”  ....... 

Glaze  solution  ;  Change  of  white  bodv  to  various  other  colors 
Formation  of  blue  calx  ;  Ornamenting  bricks  and  tiles  of  uneven  sur¬ 
face,  with  metallic  or  vitreous  colors  ;  James  C.  Anderson’s  invention 
Ornamentation  of  bricks,  tiles,  and  building  blocks  having  plain  or  uni¬ 
form  surfaces  ;  Invention  of  James  C.  Anderson,  of  Chicago 
Preparing  leaves,  plants,  etc.,  to  receive  the  body  color;  Paper  or  mate¬ 
rial  to  be  used  ;  Enamelling  fine  wares . 

Composition  of  a  glaze  to  cover  figures  printed  in  metallic  colors  ;  Glazing 
the  ware  to  be  painted  ;  Directions  for  fine  enamelling  ;  Bossing 
Directions  for  stencilling  ;  Precautions  to  be  taken  by  “ground  layers” 
against  inhaling  color-dust  ........ 

Process  of  gilding;  Use  of  “Pounce”  to  save  expense  of  repeated 
drawings;  Glaze-kiln;  Arranging  saggers  into  bungs  in  the  glaze-kiln 
Glazing  ordinary  tiles  ;  How  to  use  pyrometric  balls  .... 

Designs  for  ornamental  bricks,  as  produced  by  the  Peerless  Brick  Co.  of 

Philadelphia . 

The  dwelling  as  a  test  of  the  taste  of  the  owner . 

Earthenware  glazes  ;  Pressing  the  pattern  upon  the  biscuit  before  glazing ; 
Cowper’s  Glaze;  Use  ot  cheap  salt  glaze  ...... 

Section  III.  Blue  bricks,  for  some  purposes,  superior  to  the  best  quality  of 
stone  ;  Use  of  blue  bricks  for  pavements,  etc. ;  clays  for  making  blue 
bricks . 


PAGE 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

82 

83 

84 
86 
88 

89 

90 

91 

92 

93 

95 

96 

97 

98 


XU 


CONTENTS. 


Kilns  for  burning  blue  bricks  and  all  classes  of  terro-metallic  ware ;  Ob¬ 
taining  color  for  blue  bricks;  Objections  to  use  of  soft  coals 

W ood  and  clean  peat  best  adapted  to  burning  terro-metallic  ware  . 

CHAPTER  IY. 

Manufacture  of  Bricks  by  the  Hand  Process. 

Section  I.  General  Remarks.  Process  of  Brick-making  by  hand  as  prac¬ 
tised  in  the  District  of  Columbia  ;  Superiority  of  these  bricks  on  account 
of  the  large  consumption  by  the  Government  and  inspection  by  U.  S. 
Engineers  .  .  . 

Particulars  of  the  process  .  .  .  ... 

Section  II.  Preparation  of  the  clay  ....... 

Manner  of  digging  clay  ......... 

Section  III.  Tempering  the  clay  ;  Ancient  and  modern  modes  . 

Use  of  pug-mill ;  Composition  of  a  gang  of  workmen  and  their  duties 

Invention  of  Alfred  Hall,  of  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  of  an  improvement 
in  the  construction  of  pug-mills,  with  description  .... 

Tools  required  by  each  temperer;  Tempering  clay  by  ring-pits 

Description  of  machine  for  ring-pits  ....... 

Difficulties  in  use  of  ring-pits  ........ 

Invention  of  Henry  Aiken,  of  Philadelphia,  relating  to  improvements  in 
ring-pits  ............ 

Illustration  of  a  ring-pit  with  Aiken’s  improvements  . 

Section  IV.  Moulding;  Table  and  moulds  ...... 

Illustration  of  cleat  and  plane  ........ 

Art  of  perfect  moulding  by  hand;  Tools  and  appliances  for  a  hand-mak¬ 
ing  brick-gang  ........... 

Tool  for  levelling  the  bottom  of  the  drying  shed  ;  moulder’s  lute  . 

Duty  of  the  moulder  and  the  wheeler  ....... 

Section  Y.  Drying  the  Bricks  ........ 

Washed  bricks  ;  Form  of  drying  shed  ....... 

An  improved  brick-drying  shed,  with  illustrations  and  detailed  descrip- 
tion  ••••••••••«•• 

Manner  of  placing  green  brick  upon  the  brick-board  .... 

Section  VI.  Description  of  wheelbarrows  ;  Setting  and  burning  the  bricks  ; 
Improvements  in  constructing  permanent  and  temporary  kilns ;  De¬ 
scription  of  wheelbarrows  ........ 

Setting  the  bricks  in  the  kiln  ........ 

Burning;  Description  of  brick-kilns  ....... 

Firing  the  kilns ;  Directions  for  burning  bricks ;  How  to  tell  when  the 
kiln  is  “hot”  ........... 

Putting  down  and  tightening  the  platting  and  increasing  the  tires  ;  illus¬ 
tration  of  and  use  of  a  “  moon”  ....... 


PAGE 

99 

100 


101 

102 

103 

104 
10G 
108 

109 

115 

116 

117 

118 
119 
122 

123 

124 

125 

126 
126 

127 

128 
133 


135 

141 

144 

145 


146 


CONTENTS. 


Xlll 


PAGE 

Detection  of  and  remedy  for  “cold”  places  in  a  burning  kiln;  “crack¬ 
ing  the  door”  when  an  arch  is  too  hot ;  “  Settling  fires”  .  .  .147 

Other  plans  for  burning  bricks  by  combinations  of  gas  and  air,  etc.  .  148 

Amount  of  coal  required  to  burn  a  kiln  of  bricks;  “Head  fires”  after 
the  centre  of  the  kiln  has  settled  .  .  .  .  .  .  .150 

Improvements  in  constructing  permanent  kilns;  Invention  of  Willis  N. 
Graves,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  of  brick-kiln,  with  Illustrations  and  de¬ 
tailed  description  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .151 

Temporary  brick-kiln ;  Invention  ofWm.  II.  Brush,  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
with  illustrations  and  detailed  description  .  .  .  .  .  .156 

Section  VII.  Improvements  in  Kiln  Roofs.  Invention  of  Thos.  F.  Adams, 

of  Philadelphia,  of  kiln  roof,  with  illustrations  and  detailed  description  160 

CHAPTER  V. 

Bhick-Machines. 

Manufacture  of  bricks  by  the  machine  process;  Two  classes  of  brick-ma¬ 
chines  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .164 

Objections  to  dry-clay  machines  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .165 

Compressive,  and  expressive  machines  ;  U.  S.  Patent  Office  classification  of 
brick  and  tile  machines;  Unhealthy  or  “unlucky  places”  caused  by  use 
of  porous  bricks  in  their  construction  .  .  .  .  .  .  .166 

Simple  way  to  test  the  absorption  of  water  by  hard-burned  bricks ;  Acous¬ 
tic  effects  of  damp  walls  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .167 

Temporary  use  of  drapery  to  prevent  reverberation  in  new  buildings  while 
the  walls  are  damp  ;  stages  of  manufacturing  bricks  by  machinery  .  168 

Difference  between  dry  and  damp-clay  bricks ;  disintegrating  mills  .  .  169 

Illustrations  and  detailed  description  of  a  disintegrating  machine  in  use  in 
a  brick-yard  in  Washington,  D.  C.  .  .  .  .  .  .  170 

Use  of  iron  rolls  in  reducing  marls  or  rough  strong  clays  .  .  .  .175 

A  clay  elevator  made  from  leather  belting  and  having  sheet-iron  buckets, 
with  illustration  and  description  ;  Construction  of  chain  elevators  having 
wrought-iron  buckets  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .176 

Error  of  the  principle  of  manufactui'ing  bricks  from  dry  clay  .  .  .177 

Machines  of  a  medium  position  between  dry-clay  machines  and  tempered- 
clay  machines  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  •  •  •  .178 

Principles  upon  which  the  medium  machines  are  run ;  Description  of  the 
Gregg  triple  pressure  machine  .  .  .  .  .  •  •  .179 

Illustration  of  the  W.  L.  Gregg  Machine,  and  of  the  works  of  the  Western 
Brick  and  Tile  Co.,  Chicago  .  .  .  .  .  •  •  .180 

Brick-machine  of  Geo.  S.  Selden  and  John  N.  McLean,  of  Philadelphia, 

with  illustrations  and  detailed  description  .  .  .  .  .  .183 

“  Combination”  Machine,  invented  by  Isaac  Gregg,  Jr.,  with  illustration  ; 
Machine  of  W.  E.  Talcott  &  Co.,  Croton  Landing,  N.  Y.  .  .  188 


XIV 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Different  forms  of  hollow  bricks,  tiles,  etc.,  with  illustrations;  Clay  mill 
for  stony  materials  .......... 

Compound  Clay  Rolls  of  Chambers’  Bro.  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  with  illus¬ 
trations  and  description  ......... 

Illustration  of  a  machine  for  mixing  hard  or  tough  clays  with  sand  and 
water  ............. 

Frey’s  four  roller  crusher ;  Elevating  clay  by  machinery  .  .  .  . 

Machine  for  elevating  clay  Avithout  a  gangway  ...... 

The  Centennial  Tiffany  Combined  Brick  and  Tile  Machine 

Peerless  Brick  Machine  with  illustration  and  description  .  .  .  . 

Chambers  Tempered-clay  Brick-machine,  with  illustration  and  description 

Difficulty  of  drying  bricks  in  sheds  ........ 

Chambers  Bros.  &  Co.’s  Brick  Dryer,  with  illustrations  and  description 

Drying  flue  ............ 

W.  L.  Gregg’s  Drying  Car,  with  illustration  and  detailed  description 

Men  required  in  a  kiln;  Number  of  machine-made  bricks  set  for  a  day’s 
task  ............. 

Day’s  Avork  of  a  press-gang  ......... 

Method  of  making  pressed  bricks  by  hand  ;  Drying  pressed  bricks  ;  Setting 
and  burning  pressed  bricks  ......... 

Elevation  showing  manner  of  setting  pressed  bricks  in  the  kiln  ;  Making 
ornamental  bricks  .......... 

Isaac  Gregg’s  brick-press ;  Miller’s  brick -press  .  .  .  .  . 

The  Carnell  brick-press  .......... 

The  Peerless  brick-press,  Patented  by  Jno.  Crabtree,  of  Philadelphia 


191 

193 


1 95 
19G 

197 

198 

199 

200 

209 

210 
214 
21G 

220 

221 


222 

224 

225 
22G 
227 


CHAPTER  YI. 


Fire-Clays,  Fire-Bricks,  and  other  Products,  and  the  Necessary 


Machines,  etc. 

Definition  of  fire-clay  ;  materials  employed  in  mixing  it  ....  231 

Mixtures  of  fire-clay  ..........  232 

Table  shoAving  the  average  composition  of  best  fire-clays  ....  233 

Composition  of  the  Dinas  fire-brick . 234 

Amount  of  resistance  to  heat  of  the  Dinas  fire-brick  ;  Ash-dust,  a  chief 

cause  of  the  \vasting  aAvay  of  fire-bricks . 235 

Causes  of  the  destruction  of  fire-bricks . 236 

Yearly  consumption  of  the  interior  brick  surface  of  a  blast  furnace;  Too 

much  attention  given  to  facings . .237 

First  requirement  in  erection  of  blast  furnaces  ;  Selecting  bricks  .  .  238 

Inspection  of  fire-bricks  in  Belgium . 239 

Tempering  in  drying  process  .........  240 

Effects  of  careless  preparation  of  the  clays  ;  Experience  of  Dr.  Isaac  Law- 
son  Avith  zinc  retorts  in  the  manufacture  of  zinc  in  Scotland  .  .  .241 


CONTENTS. 


XV 


PAGE 


Zinc  manufacture  in  the  U.  States  at  U.  S.  Arsenal,  Washington,  D.  C., 
by  the  N.  Jersey  Zinc  Co.,  by  Matthiessen  and  Hegeler;  Experiments 
of  Jno.  Watson  and  Jno.  Wetherill,  success  of  the  Lehigh  Zinc  Co.  .  242 

Plasticity  and  shrinkage  of  clay  ........  243 

The  capacity  of  clays  for  absorbing  water;  Effects  of  drying  at  a  tempera¬ 
ture  of  130°  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  244 

Plasticity  and  shrinkage  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .245 

Point  of  greatest  density  of  the  mass ;  Conversion  of  refuse  materials  into 
fire-bricks  ;  Refuse  from  the  China-clay  works  of  Devonshire,  England  ; 
Lining  for  Bessemer  convertors  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .240 

Joseph  Khern’s  plan  of  manufacture  of  silicious  bricks  .  .  .  .24  7 

Compounds  for  different  classes  of  silicious  bricks  .....  248 

Description  of  kilns  for  burning  silicious  fire-bricks  .....  249 

Locations  of  superior  qualities  of  fire-clays  in  the  U.  States  .  .  .  250 

Analyses  of  the  Strourbridge,  and  several  fire-clays  found  in  the  U.  States  252 


Physical  tests  governing  the  employment  of  fire-clays  in  industry;  Undue 
importance  entertained  by  some  manufacturers  of  the  relative  propor¬ 
tions  of  alumina  and  silica  ;  Limited  influence  of  the  plastic  character  of 
refractory  clays  ...........  253 

Improvement  of  fire-clays  by  dry-clay  moulding  .....  254 

Color  of  well-manufactured  fire-bricks  .......  255 

Color  not  always  a  sure  test ;  Locations  in  England  for  manufacture  of 
fire-brick  ............  25G 


Different  sizes  and  shapes  of  fire-bricks  ....... 

Division  of  the  process  of  manufacture  of  fire-brick  ;  Illustration  of  the 
shapes  and  sizes  of  fire-bricks  ........ 

Preparation  of  the  materials;  Illustrations  and  description  of  the  Newell 

M dl.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 


258 

259 

260 


Illustration  and  description  of  the  Carnell  Stamping  Mill  for  fire-clays ; 
Illustration  and  description  of  the  Holland  Mill  .....  263 

Illustrations  and  detailed  description  of  a  contrivance  for  mixing  and  re¬ 
ducing  fire  and  other  clays  .........  266 

Gerhard’s  Machine  for  simultaneously  tempering  and  moulding  fire-brick  275 
Illustration  of  a  hand-press  for  fire  bricks  ......  276 

Care  to  be  observed  in  setting  fire-clay  wares  in  the  kiln  to  avoid  forming 
flues  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  •  •  .277 

Improved  regenerative  kiln,  as  perfected  bv  James  Dunnaehie,  of  La¬ 
nark,  Scotland,  with  illustrations  and  detailed  description  .  .  .278 

Fire-clay  and  terra-cotta  clay  for  columns,  and  hollow  tiles  for  fire-proofing 
between  iron  floors  and  ceiling  joists  .......  286 

Use  of  hollow  ties  for  heating  and  ventilating  purposes  ....  288 

Recent  tests  by  Gen.  M.  C.  Meigs  as  to  the  resistance  of  terra-cotta  sheath¬ 
ing  tiles  to  dead  weight ;  Fire-proof  flooring  of  the  new  Columbia 
College  Law  School 


289 


XVI 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Hollow  tile  fire-proof  floors  .........  290 

Perspective  views  of  encased  iron  columns  ......  293 


CHAPTER  VII. 


Terra-cotta. 


Section  I.  General  Remarks  ......... 

Use  of  terra-cotta  for  architectural  decorations  in  various  parts  of  the 
world  and  in  various  ages  ......... 

Vitrified  terra-cotta,  a  lasting  triumph  of  man  over  natural  productions; 
Historical  records  of  Babylon  and  Chaldea  in  terra-cotta  still  in  ex¬ 
istence  ............ 

Jaequemart  upon  the  part  performed  by  terra-cotta  in  perpetuating  the 
achievements  of  man  during  the  Roman  Empire  ;  Recent  improvement 
of  buildings  in  England,  Germany,  and  United  States  by  means  of 
terra  cotta  ............ 

Order  in  which  the  general  design  should  be  carried  out  in  terra-cotta  . 

Truth  an  absolute  necessity  in  terra-cotta  designs  :  modes  of  employment 
of  terra-cotta  in  different  countries  ....... 

Terra-cotta  as  a  root-covering  ........ 

Terra-cotta  crestings  ;  Terra-cotta  backs  of  fireplaces  .... 

Terra-cotta  as  chimney  shafts  in  England  at  an  early  date 

Cement  for  mending  broken  terra-cotta  ...... 

Modern  employment  of  terra-cotta  in  architecture  ;  terra-cotta  for  brack¬ 
ets  or  garden  decorations,  etc.  ........ 

Section  II.  Manufacture  of  Terra-cotta.  Analysis  of  the  clays  of  North 
Devon  and  of  Dorsetshire  ;  Fire-clays  of  the  north  of  England  and  of 
Scotland  used  for  terra-cotta  ........ 


294 

295 


296 


297 

298 

299 

300 

301 

302 

304 

305 


306 


Terra-cotta  made  from  mixture  of  clays  ;  New  Jersey  clay  fields  .  .  307 

Supersession  of  the  clay  in  New  Jersey  ;  Manufacture  of  “terra-cotta 

lumber” . 308 

Terra-cotta  immersed  in  asphalt . 309 

Terra-cotta  manufacture  in  various  localities  in  the  United  States  .  .310 

\  itrifying  ingredients  added  to  terra-cotta  clay  ;  Effect,  of  alkaline  salts 

in  the  clay . 313 

Use  ot  hot  water  and  steam  as  aids  in  tempering  the  clay ;  Moulding  ; 

Making  the  moulds . 314 

The  process  employed  for  the  Albert  Hall  and  other  buildings  in  Eng¬ 
land  for  taking  many  forms  from  one  plaster  cast ;  Use  of  liquid  gela¬ 
tine  . 315 

Section  III.  Drying . 316 

Description  of  the  drying  building . 317 

Description  of  the  drying  furnace . 318 


CONTENTS. 


XVII 


Necessity  of  a  concrete  bottom  covering  of  the  roof;  Drawing  off  the 
water  from  the  roof  .......... 

Directions  for  starting  the  fires  in  the  drying  building  .... 

Economy  in  a  furnace-heated  drying-room  ;  Steam  coil  drying ;  The  sys¬ 
tem  of  steam  drying  employed  in  Washington,  D.  C.  ;  Advantages  of 
this  system  ........... 

Losses  from  moulding  and  drying  in  the  open  air  ..... 

Section  IV.  Burning.  Objection  to  the  use  of  coal  in  firing  light-colored 
terra-cotta ;  Advantage  of  the  overdraft  system  .... 

Section  V.  Improvement  in  the  construction  of  Terra-cotta  Kilns.  Inven¬ 
tion  of  Alfred  Hall,  of  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.  ;  Illustration  with  detailed 
description  ........... 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

The  Manufacture  of  Roofing  Tiles  and  Sewer  Pipes. 

Section  I.  General  Remarks.  Historical  data  ...... 

Tiles  used  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  ....... 

Plain  tiles  as  now  in  use  in  England  and  elsewhere  .... 

Pantiles  and  various  other  forms  of  tile  ...... 

Illustrations  of  modifications  of  pantiles  ...... 

Law  of  Edward  IV.  in  regard  to  digging  clay  for  tiles ;  Advantages  of 
tile  roofing;  Tuileries,  Paris  ;  Modern  tile-covered  roofs  . 
Illustrations  of  shapes  of  tiles  ........ 

Proper  roofs  for  tiling  .......... 

Section  II.  The  Process  of  Manufacturing  Roofing  Tiles  .... 

Objections  to  tile  roofing ;  Directions  for  burning  roofing  tiles 
Varieties  of  tiles  produced  in  large  tileries ;  Mixing  loam  with  clay  for 
some  forms  of  tiles  .......... 

Operation  in  the  London  tileries ;  Kilns  for  burning  pantiles 
Placing  the  pantiles  in  the  kiln  ;  Coloring  tiles  in  the  United  States 
Fastening  the  tiles  upon  the  roof ;  Size  of  and  form  of  shingle  tiles 
Sizes  and  form  of  pantiles ;  Roofing  tiles  made  by  machinery  by  J.  C. 
Ewart  &  Co.,  Akron,  Ohio  ........ 

The  importance  of  labor-saving  machinery  ...... 

The  practical  operation  of  the  Merrill  roofing  tile  machine ;  Illustrations 
and  detailed  description  of  the  Merrill  roofing  tile  machine 
Machine  for  manufacturing  roofing  tiles  from  plastic  clay,  with  illustra¬ 
tions  and  detailed  description  ........ 

The  common  form  of  tile  barrows  ....... 

Section  III.  The  Manufacture  of  Drain  Pipes.  Making  of  drain  pipes  by 
hand  in  Staffordshire,  England  ........ 

Description  of  the  Ainslie  machine,  with  improvements 

B 


PAGE 

319 

320 


321 

322 

323 


324 


327 

328 

329 

330 

331 

332 

333 

334 
334 
337 

339 

340 

341 

342 

343 

344 

345 

349 

353 

354 

355 


XV111 


CONTENTS. 


Agricultural  land  drainage  in  England  ;  Suggestions  of  Captain  Walter 
Blyth  in  1652  ;  Early  practice  ;  System  introduced  by  James  Smith, 
of  Deanton,  in  1823  ........ 

Drain  tiles  made  by  a  machine  invented  by  the  Marquis  of  Tweeddale  ; 
Kinds  of  tiles  used  for  agricultural  underground  drains  ;  Underground 
drainage  of  the  Romans  ......... 

Drainage  in  ancient  Chaldean  Tombs ;  Drainage  of  American  Mound 
Builders  ;  Drainage  law  in  District  of  Columbia  ;  Drain  pipe  now  em¬ 
ployed  in  Europe  .......... 

Selection  and  preparation  of  clay  for  earthenware  pipes ;  Manner  of 
applying  the  salt  glaze  ......... 

Large  sewer  pipes,  to  allow  small  pipes  to  enter  them  at  an  angle  ;  Illus¬ 
trations  and  detailed  description  of  the  Tiffany  Centennial  Tile 
Machine  ........... 

Drake’s  Pipe  Machine  ;  Illustrations  and  detailed  description 
The  Potts  Machine  ;  Illustrations  and  detailed  description 
Old  style  of  Pipe  Machine  now  used  in  Europe  and  this  country  for 
forming  large-sized  pipes  ........ 

Section  IV.  Machines  for  forming  Sockets  on,  and  making  Curved  Earth- 

O  7  C 

enware  Pipes.  Inventions  of  Horace  B.  Camp  ;  Illustrations  and  de¬ 
tailed  description  .......... 

Making  curved  earthenware  pipes  ;  Illustrations  and  detailed  description  of 
a  machine  for  forming  curves,  elbows,  and  traps  for  sewer  pipes 
Dodd’s  improved  tile  carrier  for  horizontal  tile  machines,  with  illus¬ 
trations  and  detailed  description  ....... 

A  contrivance  for  preventing  the  displacement  of  drain-pipes  in  the 
kiln ;  Illustrations  and  detailed  description  of  the  invention  of  John 
Murtagh,  of  Boston  ......... 

Machine  for  cutting  sewer  pipe  rings ;  Illustrations  and  detailed  de¬ 
scription  of  a  machine  for  cutting  clay  rings  from  clay  pipe 
Barrow  for  wheeling  sewer-pipe  and  drain-pipe  ..... 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Ornamental  Tiles,  etc. 

Section  I.  General  Remarks.  Illustration  of  Robbia  enamelled  ware; 
Earliest  mention  and  description  of  a  colored  pavement  ;  Pavement  in 
the  garden  court  of  the  palace  of  Ahasuerus  ;  Extravagances  and  dis¬ 
sipations  of  Xerxes  .......... 

Historical  records  .......... 

Colored  bricks  of  the  walls  of  Babylon  ;  Glazing  in  fixed  colors  ;  Came 
partially  through  the  Arabians  in  Spain ;  Glazed  tiles  for  paving 
sacred  edifices  in  medkeval  times  ;  Specimen  of  tiles  of  great  age  in 
Northern  France;  Highly  ornamental  buildings  in  Byzantium, 
Palestine,  and  Syria,  discovered  by  the  Crusaders  .... 


page 

356 

357 

358 

359 

360 
363 
367 

376 

378 

384 

384 

386 

389 

394 


395 

396 

397 


CONTENTS. 


XIX 


Stone  in  use  among  the  Normans  until  the  12th  century ;  Introduction  of 
tiles  of  red  earth  as  substitute  for  stone ;  Designs  on  enamelled  tiles 

in  the  Christian  churches  .  . 

Construction  and  ornamentation  in  the  early  Norman  buildings 
Glazed  or  enamelled  coffins  in  use  in  Chaldea ;  Placing  the  body  in  the 
coffin  and  remedy  against  the  coffin  bursting  ;  Robbery  of  the  coffins 
by  the  Arabs  ........... 

Enamelling  in  the  island  of  Majorca,  derived  from  the  Arabians  in  Spain ; 
Majolica,  what  this  name  is  applied  to  ;  Faenza,  the  origin  of  the 
French  term  Fayence  ;  composition  and  coloring  matter  of  Fayence  ; 
Its  discovery  by  Luca  della  Robbia ;  Birth  and  life  of  Luca  della 
Robbia  ............ 

Medallions  in  the  Kensington  Museum ;  Decorations  in  the  Ceppo  Hos¬ 
pital  at  Pistoja  ........... 

Palissy  ware,  remarkable  for  its  faithful  imitations  of  animals  and  plants, 
etc. ;  Delft  ware  .......... 

Abaquesne,  designer  of  the  paving  of  the  Chateau  of  Ecouen ;  Masseot 
Abaquesne,  decorations  made  by  him  in  1535  ;  Four  classes  of  glazed 
tiles  for  decorative  employments  ....... 

Services  of  Mr.  Herbert  Minton,  in  England,  in  perfecting  ornamental 

pottery  .  . . 

F.  J.  Wyatt’s  patent  for  imitating  tesselated  pavement  with  colored 
cement;  Mr.  Blashfield’s  experiments  with  bitumen,  colored  with 
metallic  oxides ;  Mr.  Singer’s  patent  for  forming  tessera,  and  im¬ 
proving  the  cement  for  uniting  it ;  Discovery  by  Mr.  Prosser,  of  Bir¬ 
mingham,  of  treating  porcelain  material . 

Tessera  of  various  colors  and  forms,  manufactured  by  Mr.  Blashfield,  in 
conjunction  with  Messrs.  Wyatt,  Parker  &  Co.  ;  Advantages  of  the 
pavements  made  by  them;  Boulton  and  Worthington  process  used 
by  Watkin  &  Co.  .......... 

Superiority  of  Japanese  art  productions  in  enamel  .... 

Application  of  the  term  encaustic  ....... 

Process  of  manufacturing  Norman  tiles  ...... 

Oldest  specimens  of  glazed  tiles  employed  in  England  ;  Valuation  of  the 
church  at  West  Acre,  Norfolk,  England,  at  the  time  of  the  suppression 
Section  II.  The  Manufacture  of  Mosaics  and  imitation  inlaid,  or  intarsia 

surfaces . 

Mosaics  in  glass,  made  by  Russian  artists ;  Grecian  pavements  at  the 
time  of  Alexander  of  Macedon  ;  Opus  Alexandrinum  /  Greek  art  in¬ 
troduced  into  Rome  by  Greek  workmen  ;  Opus  musivum  . 

Mosaic  pavements  in  Asia  Minor,  Spain,  Gaul,  England,  and  Pompeii; 

Mosaic  work  in  Italy  ....••••• 
Illustrations  and  detailed  description  of  the  invention  of  Mr.  Robert 
Eltzner,  of  New  York  City,  for  the  manufacture  of  mosaic  plates  for 
pavements,  wall  ornamentation,  etc.  ...... 


PAGE 

398 

399 

400 

401 

403 

404 

405 
40G 

407 

408 

409 
-411 

412 

413 

414 

415 
41G 

417 


XX 


CONTENTS. 


Advantages  of  this  method ;  Illustration  and  description  of  an  invention 
for  the  production  of  tiles,  table  tops,  wainscoting,  panels,  work  boxes, 
articles  of  furniture,  etc.  ......... 

Section  III.  American  Tiles  ;  Tile  manufacturers  in  the  United  States 

Progress  in  the  art  of  pottery  since  the  Centennial  Exhibition  of  187G 
in  Philadelphia  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 

Advancement  in  production  of  art  tiles  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Low,  of  Chelsea, 
Massachusetts  ........... 

Illustrations  and  description  of  the  Low  tiles  ..... 

Premium  for  the  ‘  ‘  Best  collection  of  art  tiles  of  English  or  American 
manufacture ;  hand-painted,  impressed  or  embossed,  relievo  or  intag¬ 
lio.”  Awarded  to  J.  G.  Low,  at  the  exhibition  in  Crewe,  England  ; 
Other  premiums  awarded  to  Mr.  Low  ...... 

Sketch  of  Air.  Low’s  efforts  ........ 

Decline  of  artistic  pottery  in  England  ....... 

Claims  of  Mr.  Low’s  invention ;  Illustrations  and  description  of  Air. 
Low’s  process  ........... 

Electrotypes  made  from  compressed  plates,  with  any  desired  pattern 
Use  of  a  diaphragm  of  Japanese  paper,  or  other  material,  in  making  elec¬ 
trotypes  ;  Preventing  tiles  from  warping  or  shrinking  unevenly  in  firing 
by  packing  them  in  the  saggers  with  quartz  grains  or  canister,  as  is 
sometimes  done  for  terra-cotta  relief  work  ..... 

Air.  Low’s  plan  for  making  dovetailed  grooves  on  the  backs  of  tiles 
Section  I\  .  Process  and  Alachinery  for  Alanufacturing  Flooring  Tiles ; 
Illustrations  and  detailed  description  of  a  machine  invented  by  Air. 
George  Elberg,  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  for  the  manufacture  of  flooring 
tile  by  a  new  process . . 

Index  . 


DIRECTIONS  TO  THE  BINDER. 

The  plates  of  Low’s  Ornamental  Tiles  to  face  page  428. 


PAGE 


421 

424 

425 

426 
428 


429 

430 

431 

433 

434 


436 

437 


437 

455 


THE 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS,  TILES, 
AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  BRICKS. 

Bricks  have  been  employed  from  the  earliest  times  in  the 
execution  of  many  undertakings  of  grandeur  and  magni¬ 
tude.  The  object  of  this  volume  is  to  give  not  more  than 
a  synopsis  of  the  history  of  the  art  of  brick-making,  but 
rather  to  describe  the  practical  details  of  their  manufacture, 
as  a  complete  history  would  be  analogous  to  that  of  civiliza¬ 
tion  with  its  advances  and  declines,  for  the  authentic  record 
of  this  branch  of  pottery  is  older  than  that  of  any  other 
ceramic  production,  extending  through  forty-one  centuries; 
the  descendants  of  the  sons  of  Noah,  who  journeyed  from 
the  East  and  located  on  the  plains  of  Shinar  being  the  first 
potters  of  whom  we  have  positive  attestation. 

They  branched  out  boldly  in  this  line,  when  in  2247  B.  C. 
they  said :  Go  to,  let  us  make  bricks,  and  burn  them  tho¬ 
roughly.  And  they  said :  Go  to,  let  us  build  us  a  city,  and 
a  tower  wrhose  top  may  reach  unto  heaven.  Genesis  xi.  3,  4. 

The  story  of  the  manner  in  which  this  proposed  monop¬ 
oly  of  that  portion  of  space  between  earth  and  heaven  was 
2 


18 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


defeated  by  confusion  of  the  tongues  of  the  builders,  is  too 
familiar  for  repetition  here.  But  that  something  was  ac¬ 
complished  will  appear  from  the  speech  of  Moses  to  the 
Israelites,  delivered  seven  hundred  and  ninety-six  years 
later,  in  which  cities  in  the  land  of  Canaan  are  referred  to 
as  being  great  and  walled  up  to  heaven.  Deut.  i.  28. 

Progress  in  brick-making  has  often  been  slow  and  uncer¬ 
tain  ;  it  has  flourished  in  ages  of  prosperity  with  other  arts, 
and  like  them  it  has  been  lost  in  ages  of  darkness ;  but  with 
them  it  awoke  with  the  renaissance  and  is  steadily  improv¬ 
ing  with  the  progress  of  time  and  the  spread  of  knowledge. 

Machinery  is  doing  much  to  lighten  labor;  but  in  all 
ages  the  work  required  to  make  bricks  has  been  of  the 
hardest  kind,  and  many  have  been  faint  with  toil  in  their 
production,  in  modern  as  well  as  in  ancient  times. 

The  children  of  Israel,  as  early  as  1706  B.  C.,  were  made 
to  serve  the  Egyptians  with  rigor,  and  their  lives  were  made 
bitter  with  hard  bondage  in  mortar  and  in  brick,  and  Pha¬ 
raoh  in  1491  B.  C.,  in  order  to  increase  the  burdens  and 
labor  of  the  Israelites,  commanded  the  taskmasters,  saying : 
Ye  shall  no  more  give  the  people  straw  to  make  brick,  as 
heretofore ;  let  them  go  and  gather  straw  for  themselves ; 
and  the  tale  of  the  bricks,  which  they  did  make  heretofore, 
ye  shall  lay  upon  them.  Exodus  vi.  7,  8. 

Pictures  illustrating  the  above  passages  are  still  preserved 
on  tombs  in  Thebes,  in  which  some  of  the  laborers  are  rep¬ 
resented  carrying  water  in  large  pots  to  temper  the  clay ; 
others  carry  on  their  shoulders  large  masses  of  clay  to  the 
moulder ;  while  others  still  are  off-bearing  the  bricks  and 
laying  them  out  on  the  ground  to  dry,  the  dried  bricks 


THE  HISTORY  OF  BRICKS. 


19 


being  carried  in  yokes  suspended  from  the  shoulders  of 
bowed  and  weary  laborers.  Taskmasters,  who  were  person¬ 
ally  responsible  for  the  labor  of  their  gangs,  are  plentifully 
represented,  observing  that  there  was  no  shirking  of  the 
labor,  or  slighting  of  the  work. 

The  mud  of  the  Nile  is  the  only  material  in  Egypt  suit¬ 
able  for  brick-making ;  the  modern  plan  is  the  same  as  the 
old :  a  bed  is  made,  into  which  are  thrown  large  quantities 
of  cut  straw,  mud,  and  water,  and  this  is  tramped  into  pug, 
removed  in  lumps,  and  shaped  in  moulds,  or  by  the  hands. 
The  moulded  clay  is  sun-dried,  not  burned,  the  bricks  of 
Egypt,  both  ancient  and  modern,  being  adobes. 

The  men  on  the  plains  of  Shinar  who  said :  “  Let  us 
make  brick,  and  burn  them  thoroughly,”  fully  understood 
their  business.  All  bricks  that  are  intended  to  support 
weight,  or  that  are  exposed  to  the  weather,  should  be  tho¬ 
roughly  burned.  Partly  burned  bricks  soon  decay  from  the 
action  of  frost,  and  are  easily  crushed  in  comparison  to  well- 
burned  bricks.  A  badly  made  brick  may  be  thoroughly 
burned  and  possess  great  strength ;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  well-made  brick  may  be  partly  burned,  and  have 
but  little  strength. 

The  Tower  of  Babel  was  built  of  well-burned  bricks,  as 
were  also  the  exposed  faces  of  the  walls  of  Babylon.  He¬ 
rodotus,  the  oldest  Greek  historian,  testifies  that  the  walls 
of  this  city  were  built  of  bricks  made  from  the  clay  thrown 
from  the  trenches  surrounding  the  place.  Accounts  of  the 
extraordinary  mounds  of  bricks  at  Birs  Nimrod,  the  sup¬ 
posed  site  of  Babylon,  and  the  remains  of  other  ancient 
cities  of  the  stoneless  plains  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 


20 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


have  been  given  by  noted  eastern  travellers.  The  buried 
palaces  of  Nebuchadnezzar  have  for  a  long  series  of  years 
provided  bricks  for  all  the  buildings  in  the  neighborhood ; 
there  is  scarcely  a  house  in  Hillar,  a  city  of  over  8000 
inhabitants,  built  close  to  the  ruins  of  ancient  Babylon, 
which  is  not  almost  entirely  built  with  them.  “  To  this 
day,”  says  Layard,  “there  are  men  who  have  no  other  trade 
than  that  of  gathering  bricks  from  this  vast  heap,  and  taking 
them  for  sale  to  neighboring  towns  and  villages,  and  even  to 
Bagdad.  Many  bricks  found  in  this  ruin  are  coated  with  a 
thick  enamel  or  glaze.  The  colors  have  resisted  the  effects 
of  time,  and  present  their  original  brightness.” 

On  every  brick  that  was  made  during  the  reign  of  Nebu¬ 
chadnezzar  it  was  his  custom  to  have  his  name  stamped,  and 
Sir  Henry  Rawlinson,  the  oriental  scholar,  in  examining  the 
bricks  in  the  walls  of  the  modern  city  of  Bagdad,  on  the 
borders  of  the  Tigris,  discovered  on  each  brick  the  clear 
traces  of  that  royal  signature.  The  Babylonish  bricks  were 
usually  of  three  colors — red,  pale  yellow,  and  blue;  and 
also  in  all  ancient  Egyptian  decoration,  the  primary  colors, 
red,  yellow,  and  blue,  were  principally  employed ;  green  was 
the  only  secondary ;  to  which  were  added  black  and  white. 

The  profuse  employment  of  colored  decoration  is  the  dis¬ 
tinctive  feature  of  Babylonish  architecture,  the  bricks  being 
stamped  out  of  a  mould,  and  impressed  with  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  which  is  a  certain  form  of  writing,  the  compo¬ 
nent  parts  of  which  may  be  said  to  resemble  either  a  wedge, 
the  barb  of  an  arrow,  or  a  nail,  the  inscription  being  placed 
in  a  sunken  rectangular  panel. 

The  sizes  of  the  Babylonish  bricks  vary,  the  burned  ones 


THE  HISTORY  OF  BRICKS. 


21 


being  13  inches  square  and  3  inches  thick;  the  adobes  or 
sun-dried  bricks  measuring  from  6  to  16  inches  square, 
and  from  2  to  7  inches  thick.  The  adobes  were  laid 
in  clay,  the  work  being  striped  horizontally,  every  four  or 
five  feet  in  height,  with  thick  layers  of  reed  matting  steeped 
in  bitumen  to  form  the  bond ;  the  burned  bricks  were  laid 
while  warm  in  hot  bitumen,  the  bond  being  formed  in  the 
laying.  In  addition  to  the  above  kinds,  there  were  trian¬ 
gular  bricks  for  corners  of  walls,  and  wedge-shaped  bricks 
for  arches,  which  were  sometimes  concave  below  and  convex 
on  top. 

Recent  excavations  have  been  made  on  the  site  of  the 
Pithon,  the  treasure-city  built  by  King  Rameses  II.  with 
the  bondage  labor  of  the  children  of  Israel.  The  buildings 
prove  to  have  consisted  almost  entirely  of  tremendous  store¬ 
houses,  built  of  adobes  ;  some  of  these  sun-dried  bricks  were 
made  with  straw  for  binding,  and  some  without  it.  Explo¬ 
rations  are  soon  to  be  commenced  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Tanis,  the  capital  of  the  Hyksos,  or  Shepherd 
Kings,  one  of  whom,  it  is  supposed,  was  the  Pharaoh  who 
ruled  Egypt  when  Joseph  was  carried  there.  Some  of  the 
mysteries  surrounding  that  period  it  is  hoped  will  be  solved, 
and  very  interesting  developments  are  looked  for  when  these 
researches  are  begun. 

It  is  thought  that  the  business  of  brick-making  was  a 
royal  monopoly  in  Egypt,  as  a  very  large  number  of  bricks 
are  found  in  that  country  with  the  stamp  of  Thothmes  III., 
who  is  believed  to  be  the  prince  who  reigned  at  the  time  of 
the  Exodus  of  the  Hebrews. 

The  bricks  of  this  prince  are  impressed  with  his  cartouche, 


22 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


which  is  an  oval,  on  which  the  hieroglyphic  characters  used 
for  his  name  were  stamped,  and  the  adobes  made  by  him 
were  12  inches  long,  9  inches  wide,  6§  inches  thick,  and  one 
in  the  British  Museum  weighed  37  pounds  and  10  ounces. 

Colored  bricks,  as  a  means  of  external  decoration,  were 
extensively  and  very  effectively  used  in  the  highly  orna¬ 
mental  architecture  of  Italy  and  Germany  during  the  Mid¬ 
dle  Ages.  The  works  of  Ruskin,  Street,  and  others,  have 
revived  the  taste  for  ornamental  and  polychrome  brick-work, 
which  promises  to  revolutionize  the  ecclesiastical  and  do¬ 
mestic  architecture  of  Europe  and  America,  and  the  taste 
for  this  class  of  brickwork  has  been  gradually  developing, 
and  has  resulted  in  the  great  advance  that  has  been  made 
in  the  manufacture  of  colored,  relief,  moulded,  and  intaglio 
bricks  during  the  past  few  years,  until  it  now  bids  fair  to 
rival  the  standard  of  earlier  ages.  In  sympathy  with  the 
demand  for  a  higher  grade  of  ornamental  bricks,  there  is  a 
more  exacting  standard  as  to  the  quality  of  the  common 
building  bricks  used,  and  architects  and  engineers  now 
generally  require  that  all  bricks  shall  be  sound  and  tho¬ 
roughly  burned.  When  this  is  so,  they  are  of  a  clear  and 
uniform  color,  and  when  struck  together  they  will  ring  with 
a  sharp  metallic  sound ;  inferiority  is  plainly  manifest  when 
there  is  a  deficiency  in  either  of  these  points,  j 

The  great  perfection  to  which  the  ancients  carried  the  art 
of  brick-making  is  probably  due  to  the  abundance  of  labor ; 
plenty  of  time  to  devote  to  each  stage  of  the  work,  their 
great  patience  and  painstaking,  and  the  natural  drying  and 
preserving  climate  of  the  east.  The  dry,  warm  atmosphere 


THE  HISTORY  OF  BRICKS. 


23 


of  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Babylonia,  which  countries  were  the 
nurseries  of  the  ceramic  arts,  has  kept  in  a  good  state  of 
preservation  for  more  than  3000  years  the  sun-dried  bricks 
so  common  in  those  countries ;  many  well-preserved  adobes 
are  also  found  in  towns  and  walls  of  ancient  India. 

Bricks  burned  and  unburned  were  employed  in  the  con¬ 
struction  of  the  Great  Wall  of'  China,  which  was  the  most 
remarkable  fortification  ever  erected  by  human  hands ;  mil¬ 
lions  of  men  were  employed  for  the  space  of  ten  years  in  its 
construction,  and  it  was  completed  in  211  B.  C.  The 
length  was  about  1250  miles,  the  height  averaging  about  22 
feet ;  each  face  of  the  wall  was  built  of  hewn  stone  or  brick, 
and  filled  in  between  with  earth ;  it  was  wider  at  the  bot¬ 
tom  than  at  the  top,  which  was  sufficient  for  six  horsemen 
to  ride  abreast,  and  it  was  built  by  the  great  emperor  of 
China,  Shee-Hoang-Ti,  who  is  its  national  hero. 

It  is  probable  that  burned  clay  did  not  find  great  favor 
with  the  ancient  Greeks,  as  they  possessed  an  abundance  of 
stone,  and  their  early  and  beautiful  temples  wrere  built  of 
that  material. 

The  walls  of  Athens,  on  the  side  toward  Mount  Hymet- 
tus,  were  built  of  bricks,  and  this  is  probably  the  largest 
undertaking  in  which  they  were  employed  by  the  Greeks. 

The  use  of  bricks  for  architectural  construction  was  never, 
at  any  period,  extensive  in  Greece ;  but  in  some  few  cases 
they  were  employed  in  minor  public  edifices. 

Their  first  application  has  been  attributed  to  Hyperbius,  of 
Crete,  and  Euryalus  or  Agrolas.  The  bricks  were  made  with 
a  mould,  and  were  named  after  the  number  of  palms — length. 


24 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


In  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era  while  the  bricks 
made  by  the  Romans  were  of  a  superior  quality,  those  made 
by  the  Greeks  were  very  inferior. 

But  little  is  known  of  the  material  used  in  the  early 
buildings  of  the  Latin  cities;  yet  judging  from  the  great 
extent  and  destructiveness  of  the  fires  in  Rome,  it  is  inferred 
that  wood  entered  largely  into  the  construction  of  buildings 
to  the  time  of  Nero.  During  his  reign  in  A.  D.  64,  two- 
thirds  of  the  city  was  destroyed  by  tire.  Augustus,  who 
devoted  so  much  time  and  thought  to  the  beautification  of 
Rome,  had  restricted  the  height  of  buildings  to  seventy  feet ; 
but  this  height  was  still  further  curtailed  by  Nero  after  the 
great  conflagration,  and  in  the  rebuilding,  a  certain  part  of 
the  houses  were  constructed  of  a  fire-proof  stone  from  Gabii 
and  Alba. 

With  the  conquest  of  Carthage,  Greece,  and  Egypt,  the 
Romans  became  acquainted  with  the  arts  of  those  subju¬ 
gated  countries,  and  tried  to  improve  upon  and  use  them  for 
the  embellishment  of  the  imperial  city,  and  it  was  most 
likely  their  innate  desire  for  improvement  that  led  to  the 
burning  of  bricks  in  kilns. 

Although  burned  bricks  were  used  in  the  Tower  of  Babel, 
and,  to  face  the  adobes  used  in  the  building  of  the  walls  and 
palaces  of  Babylon,  it  is  probable  that  the  credit  of  first 
burning  bricks  in  kilns  belongs  to  the  Romans ;  but  it  is 
hard  to  fix  the  time  when  this  improvement  took  place. 

Layers  of  thin  bricks,  separating  the  tufa  surface  into 
panels,  called  opus  reticulatum ,  were  used  in  the  time  of 


THE  HISTORY  OF  BRICKS. 


25 


Augustus.  In  the  time  of  Nero  the  walls  were  faced  en¬ 
tirely  with  excellent  brick-work  called  opus  lateritium. 

Pliny  says  that  the  bricks  made  in  Greece  at  this  time 
were  very  inferior,  and  not  fit  to  be  used  in  the  construction 
of  a  Roman  dwelling,  and  that  no  party  wall  was  allowed  to 
be  more  than  eighteen  inches  in  thickness,  and  that  the 
material  would  not  support  one  story. 

The  bricks  must  have  been  of  a  very  poor  quality,  or  else 
Pliny  greatly  misjudged  their  strength,  for  at  the  present 
time  many  buildings  are  being  constructed,  four  and  five 
stories  in  height,  with  the  party  walls  for  most  of  the  way 
only  nine  inches  in  thickness,  of  the  poorest  kind  of  salmon 
bricks  of  which  the  water  has  barely  been  driven  out  of 
the  clay  by  the  action  of  heat ;  and  if  Pliny  could  see  some 
of  the  bricks  now  used,  he  would  quake  for  the  safety  of  the 
occupants  of  some  modern  hotels,  apartment  houses,  office 
buildings  and  dwellings  that  have  recently  been  erected  for 
speculative  purposes  in  London,  and  some  portions  of  this 
country. 

In  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the  bricks  were 
better  than  at  any  other  period ;  they  were  large,  flat,  and 
thin,  generally  two  feet  square,  and  one  inch  thick,  and  were 
what  we  call  Roman  tiles,  but  were  used  for  building 
walls,  and  not  merely  for  roofing  or  pavements ;  the  facing 
bricks  were  triangular,  the  broad  side  being  outwards.  But 
bricks  gradually  became  thicker  and  shorter,  until  in  the 
fourth  century  they  were  very  often  as  many  as  four  to  a  foot 
on  the  face  of  the  wall ;  which  is  about  the  same  as  in  modern 


structures. 


26 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


The  Romans  did  not  build  their  walls  entirely  of  bricks, 
they  were  used  only  as  a  facing  or  veneering ;  the  same  as 
we  use  front  or  pressed  bricks,  the  remainder  or  backing  of 
the  wall  being  of  concrete,  and  thus  we  find  that  a  large 
number  of  the  great  Roman  buildings  are  constructed  of 
concrete,  faced  with  brick. 

The  brick-work  of  the  first  two  centuries  of  the  Christian 
era,  the  crowning  period  of  art  in  Rome,  was  superior  to  any 
other.  In  the  third  century,  there  was  barely  a  perceptible 
change;  but  in  the  fourth  there  was  a  most  decided  deterio¬ 
ration,  and  brick-work  went  back  with  the  times,  old  material 
being  re-used  extensively,  as  in  the  arch  of  Constantine. 

Knowledge  of  the  art  of  brick-making  has  probably  at  no 
time  become  entirely  extinct  in  the  east ;  but  after  the  fourth 
century,  in  sympathy  with  the  decline  of  all  other  arts,  and 
the  dying  Roman  civilization,  the  knowledge  of  this  art 
gradually  expired,  and  was  lost  in  Western  Europe. 

The  Romans  made  bricks  extensively  in  Germany  and  in 
England,  and  though  it  might  seem  strange  that  such  an 
art,  when  once  acquired,  should  have  been  lost,  nevertheless 
the  remains  of  buildings  between  the  Roman  times  and  the 
thirteenth  century  show  no  evidence  of  bricks  having  been 
made  in  England.  v 

In  a  few  instances  only  were  they  re-used  as  old  material 
from  buildings  left  by  the  Romans,  as  at  Colchester  and  St. 
Alban’s  Abbey,  the  old  Roman  town  of  Verulamium,  near 
which  the  latter  is  situated,  supplying  material  for  it. 

The  buildings  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  usually  of  wood, 
rarely  of  stone,  until  the  eleventh  century,  and  it  is  not  im- 


THE  HISTORY  OF  BRICKS. 


27 


probable  that  the  primitive  English  churches  may  be  among 
the  earliest  stone  buildings  of  Western  Europe,  after  the  time 
of  the  Romans. 

In  these  buildings  the  arches  are  generally  plain,  but 
sometimes  they  are  worked  with  rude  but  massive  mould¬ 
ings  ;  some  arches  are  constructed  of  bricks,  all  of  them 
taken  from  some  Roman  building,  as  at  Brixworth,  or 
sometimes  stones  are  employed,  and  these  usually  have 
a  course  of  bricks  or  thin  stones  laid  upon  the  top  of  the 
arch,  as  at  Britford  Church,  Wiltshire. 

It  has  been  thought  that  bricks  were  made  in  England, 
under  the  direction  of  Alfred  the  Great,  as  early  as  A.  D. 
886,  and  it  is  possible  that,  in  rebuilding  London  and  other 
cities  which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Danes,  bricks 
were  used ;  but  this  is  not  probable,  as  there  are  but  few 
buildings  in  any  part  of  Western  Europe  now  in  existence 
that  are  earlier  than  the  eleventh  century,  and  if  bricks  were 
made  in  the  time  of  Alfred,  in  England,  there  are  none  at 
present  in  existence,  and  no  authentic  history  of  any  build¬ 
ing  erected  in  his  reign,  in  which  they  are  said  to  have 
been  used,  and  it  is  most  probable  that  the  earliest  true 
modern,  or  Flemish,  brick  building  existing  in  England  is 
Little  Wenham  Hall,  in  Suffolk,  which  was  erected  in  A.  D. 
1260. 

In  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  brick  construction  was  not 
general,  Hurtsmonceaux  Castle,  Sussex,  built  early  in  his 
reign,  being  one  of  the  principal  brick  buildings  of  that 
period ;  but  under  Henry  VIII.  and  Elizabeth,  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  bricks  flourished,  and  they  were  used  mostly  for  large 


28  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

buildings,  the  smaller  ones  being  of  timber  construction,  in 
which  small  panels  of  ornamental  brick-work  were  sometimes 
formed  and  exposed  between  the  upright  studs. 

Only  a  few  instances  of  early  fourteenth  century  brick¬ 
work  occur,  and  they  are  towards  the  close  of  the  style;  but 
in  the  fifteenth  century  brick-work  became  common,  and  we 
have  in  the  Lollards’  Tower  of  Lambeth  Palace,  built  in 
A.  D.  1454,  and  the  Manor  House,  or  older  portion  of 
Hampton  Court  Palace,  Middlesex,  built  in  A.  D.  1514,  good 
examples  of  the  English  brick  architecture  in  mediaeval 
times.  The  ecclesiastical  and  palatial  architecture  of  Italy 
of  this  period  is  rich  in  many  beautiful  specimens  of  brick¬ 
work,  and  in  addition  to  the  employment  of  colored  decora¬ 
tive  brick-work,  the  most  elaborate  mouldings  and  ornamen¬ 
tation  in  terra-cotta  and  brick  are  exhibited. 

Until  the  first  quarter  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
bricks  made  in  England  were  of  many  different  sizes ;  but 
by  Charles  I.,  in  A.  D.  1625,  their  size  was  regulated  and 
made  nearly  uniform. 

After  the  great  fire  of  London,  in  September,  A.  D.  1666, 
brick  was  the  material  universally  used  in  the  reconstruction, 
and  ornaments  carved  with  the  chisel  were  introduced  into 
some  of  the  brick-work  erected  towards  the  last  of  that  cen¬ 
tury  in  that  city. 

In  A.  D.  1784,  bricks  were  subjected  to  taxation  by 
George  III.,  which  burden  was  not  repealed  until  A.  D.  1850  ; 
the  tax  for  this  time,  two-thirds  of  a  century,  averaging 
about  45.  Id.  per  thousand  for  common  bricks,  and  about 
10$.  per  thousand  for  the  finer  grades. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  BRICKS. 


29 


The  material  of  which  a  town  is  built  depends  generally 
upon  the  geology  of  the  surrounding  district,  as  in  a  moun¬ 
tainous  country  like  Scotland,  cities  of  stone,  such  as  Edin¬ 
burgh,  Glasgow,  and  Aberdeen,  naturally  abound ;  but 
London,  and  most  of  the  great  cities  of  England,  being- 
situated  in  alluvial  valleys  and  plains,  are  built  of  bricks 
made  from  the  alluvial  clay  beneath  and  around  them,  and 
in  Holland  and  the  other  provinces  of  the  Netherlands, 
where  no  stone,  except  a  very  soft  and  inferior  sandstone 
is  found,  the  use  of  brick  as  the  chief  building  material 
became  almost  universal  from  earliest  times,  even  the  paving 
of  the  streets  and  other  public  works  being  done  with 
bricks.'  There  are  buildings  in  some  cities  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands  in  which  stone  has  been  largely  used,  but  they  are  the 
exception  rather  than  the  rule.  Peter  Mortier,  in  a  small 
book  published  in  A.  D.  1782,  gives  a  description  of  the 
City  Hall  of  Amsterdam.  He  says  that  the  old  City  Hall 
was  erected  earlier  than  A.  D.,  1400,  that  the  front  and 
sides  rested  on  divers  stone  columns,  and  that  on  one  side 
there  was  a  four-square  stone  steeple,  that  the  building  was 
burned  July  7,  A.  D.  1682,  and  the  heat  was  so  great  that 
everything  was  consumed,  except  a  piece  of  brickwork  in  the 
steeple.  The  new  building  was  constructed  on  the  site  of 
the  old  one,  but  was  commenced  in  1648,  part  of  the  old 
structure  having  been  taken  down  to  make  room  for  the  new. 
In  order  to  obtain  a  foundation  for  the  new  building,  13,659 
piles  were  driven,  upon  which  were  placed  seven  feet  of 
brick-work  to  form  the  foundation. 

It  was  under  Wouter  Van  T wilier,  of  Amsterdam,  a  gov- 


30 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


ernor  appointed  by  the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  that  the 
first  brick  buildings  were  erected  in  this  country.  In  A.  D. 
1633,  soon  after  his  arrival  on  Manhattan  Island,  Governor 
Van  T wilier  erected  for  his  own  use  a  substantial  brick 
house,  which  was  the  most  elaborate  private  dwelling  which 
had  up  to  that  time  been  attempted  in  America,  and  dur¬ 
ing  the  remainder  of  the  Dutch  dynasty  this  dwelling  served 
for  the  residence  of  the  successive  chiefs  of  the  colony.  He 
also  built  several  small  brick  dwellings  for  the  officers,  which 
with  his  own  were  erected  within  the  walls  of  the  fort.  The 
bricks  used  in  these  buildings  were  brought  from  Amster¬ 
dam,  and  were  of  such  a  good  quality  that  but  few  were 
broken  in  the  long  and  rough  voyage.  The  Dutch  seem  to 
have  succeeded  well  in  making  a  strong  and  very  durable 
quality  of  brick,  which  bricks  have  been  famous  from  an 
early  period  for  soundness,  and  specimens  of  them  brought 
over  by  the  early  settlers  from  Holland  are  yet  to  be  met 
with  in  some  of  the  old  Dutch  houses  of  New  York. 

Among  the  Puritan  emigrants  to  New  England  money 
was  very  scarce;  and,  under  Winthrop,  carpenters  and  brick¬ 
layers,  whose  services  were  in  great  demand,  and  had  a  mo¬ 
nopoly  price,  were  forbidden  to  accept  over  12 d.,  and  after¬ 
wards,  in  1630,  2s.  per  day,  the  penalty  being  10s.  to  giver 
and  taker.  The  brick-layers  were  also  the  stone-masons,  they 
ranked  under  the  first  head ;  but  a  much  larger  amount  of 
building  was  done  in  wood  and  in  stone  than  in  brick  in 
those  times.  v 

The  earliest  settlement  in  this  country  in  which  brick- 
makers  are  recorded  as  being  part  of  the  population  was  the 


THE  HISTORY  OF  BRICKS. 


31 


colony  of  New  Haven.  In  this  industrious  and  inventive 
little  company  it  is  probable  that  the  first  bricks  made  in  this 
country  were  burned  in  1650.  They  had  no  rich  backers 
willing  to  foot  the  bills  for  costly  brick  buildings,  as  the 
Dutch  West  India  Company  had  done  for  Governor  Van 
T wilier  in  his  building  operations  at  Manhattan,  or  New 
Amsterdam  as  it  was  called  at  a  later  period.  They  had 
made  several  attempts  to  produce  bricks  at  earlier  times, 
but  had  failed,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  the  very  few 
which  they  did  succeed  in  burning  were  of  a  very  superior 
quality.  But  like  the  building  of  their  ship,  which  sailed 
from  their  ice-bound  shore  and  was  never  heard  of  again, 
though  faulty  in  many  respects,  their  production  was  an 
evidence  of  great  energy,  and  it  is  the  inheritance  of  this 
same  quality  that  has  made  all  that  section  of  country  a 
great  manufacturing  and  inventive  district. 

The  Virginia  colonists  possessed  clay  of  a  far  superior 
quality  for  brick-making ;  but  they  do  not  seem  to  have 
made  any  attempt  to  utilize  it.  A  few  bricks  were  brought 
from  England  and  used  in  the  furnaces  of  an  iron-foundry 
and  a  glass-house,  both  of  which  were  destroyed  during  the 
great  massacre  of  March,  1622,  and  appear  to  have  com¬ 
prised  the  entire  manufactures  of  the  colony. 

Brick  has  been  a  choice  material  for  building  purposes  in 
the  State  of  Pennsylvania  from  its  primitive  days.  In  a 
letter  from  William  Penn  to  his  agent,  J.  Harrison,  at 
Pennsbury,  written  in  1685,  in  speaking  of  a  lady  who  had 
purchased  land  and  intended  to  emigrate,  he  said :  “  She 
wants  a  house  of  brick,  like  Hannah  Psalter’s  in  Burling- 


32 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


ton,  and  she  will  give  £40  sterling  in  money  and  as  much 
more  in  goods.  It  must  have  four  rooms  below,  about 
36  x  18  feet  large,  the  rooms  9  feet  high,  and  two  stories 
height.”  Some  idea  of  the  great  purchasing  power  of  money 
in  those  days,  as  well  as  the  price  and  value  of  buildings, 
can  be  gained  from  the  above. 

In  1705  the  price  of  brick-layers’  labor  in  Philadelphia 
was  3s.  6d.  per  day,  and  the  price  of  bricks  22s.  per  thou¬ 
sand.  One  of  the  oldest  public  buildings  in  this  country 
constructed  of  brick  was  the  old  Court-house  in  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  commenced  in  the  fall  of  1705,  and  to  these  pil¬ 
grim  fathers  the  erection  of  this  building  was  a  great  under¬ 
taking  and  their  largest  endeavor.  Gifts,  fines,  assessments, 
and  forfeitures  were  all  combined  to  give  it  the  amplitude 
of  a  “  Great  Towne  House”  or  “  Guild  Hall,”  as  it  was 
sometimes  called  when  first  built.  To  modern  ideas  this 
building  was  small  and  ignoble ;  but  in  those  days  it  was 
grand  and  imposing  in  the  eyes  of  all  the  populace.  The 
total  expense  of  the  structure  was  £616,  the  bricks  costing 
29s.  6d.  per  thousand,  and  the  brick-laying  costing  14s.  per 
thousand.  This  primitive  building  was  erected  in  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  High,  or  as  it  is  now  called,  Market  Street,  at  the 
corner  of  Second,  and  after  being  used  for  various  purposes 
for  one  hundred  and  thirty  years,  it  was  demolished  in  the 
spring  of  1837.  For  about  twenty-eight  years  it  was  used 
as  a  court-house ;  but  its  use  for  that  purpose  was  super¬ 
seded  by  the  erection  of  “  the  new  State  House,”  or  “  Inde¬ 
pendence  Hall”  as  it  is  now  called,  which  was  built  of  brick 
in  1733.  Another  primitive  brick  building  in  that  city  was 


THE  HISTORY  OF  BRICKS. 


33 


the  “  Great  Meeting-house”  of  Friends,  at  the  south  of  the 
“  Great  Towne  House,”  on  the  corner  of  Second  and  High 
Streets.  This  building  and  the  surrounding  brick  walls 
which  inclosed  it,  were  erected  in  1695,  the  ground  being- 
given  for  that  purpose  by  George  Fox,  for  “  truth’s  and 
Friends’  sake.”  Early  in  1719  bricks  came  into  use  for 
foot-pavements  in  Philadelphia,  and  the  great  demand  for 
them  made  the  material  very  expensive. 

Bricks  do  not  appear  to  have  been  much  used  in  the  early  , 
buildings  of  Boston,  as  wood  seems  to  have  been  the  favor¬ 
ite  material  for  building  purposes  with  the  Puritan  emi¬ 
grants,  stone  being  sometimes  employed.  The  first  “Towne 
House”  erected  in  Boston  was  constructed  of  wood ;  it  was 
built  about  1657,  and  stood  at  the  head  of  State  Street,  and 
was  consumed  in  the  great  fire  of  1711.  Its  successor  was 
a  brick  edifice,  erected  in  1712  on  the  same  spot,  which  in 
turn  was  destroyed  in  the  fire  of  1747.  The  old  State 
House  was  built  the  next  year,  1748,  and  as  late  as  1791  it 
was  described  “as  an  elegant  brick  building,  110  feet  in 
length,  and  38  in  breadth.”  The  first  Episcopal  Church  in 
Boston  was  erected  in  1689,  of  wood,  at  a  cost  of  <£284,  and 
was  at  the  corner  of  Tremont  and  School  Streets.  The 
“  Triangular  Warehouse,”  which  stood  at  the  head  of  the 
“  towne  dock,”  was  one  of  the  earliest  brick  buildings 
erected  in  Boston ;  it  was  built  by  London  merchants  about 
1700;  its  foundation  was  of  stone  and  its  walls  of  brick, 
which  were  of  a  larger  size  than  the  bricks  of  the  country 
in  later  times. 

Brick-work  became  common  in  this  country  in  the  early 
3 


34 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  until  the  trouble  be¬ 
tween  the  colonies  and  the  mother  country,  bricks  were 
imported  mostly  from  England. 

There  was  not  much  inducement  to  produce  home-made 
bricks  previous  to  this  time,  as  vessels  sailing  with  light  car¬ 
goes  for  the  colonies  would  finish  out  with  bricks,  which 
commanded  ready  sales,  at  moderate  prices,  rather  than  with 
stone  ballast,  which  would  have  to  be  thrown  overboard 
before  receiving  their  heavy  return  cargoes  of  tobacco  and 
other  exports  of  the  colonies. 

In  this  way  a  number  of  brick  buildings  were  constructed 
on  the  tide  waters  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  in  the  times  which 
preceded  the  troublesome  period  of  the  Revolution. 

At  the  period  immediately  following  this  war,  there  was 
but  little  done  in  the  line  of  building ;  the  generally  dis¬ 
tressed  condition  of  the  industries  and  the  finances  of  the 
country  was  a  bar  to  any  improvements,  excepting  such  as 
were  in  the  nature  of  repairs,  and  necessary  to  make  build¬ 
ings  inhabitable.  The  condition  of  things,  after  the  adoption 
of  the  Constitution,  gradually  changed ;  churches,  and  other 
buildings  of  a  public  character,  which  had  remained  in  an 
unfinished  state  during  the  entire  period  of  the  war,  were 
completed,  and  a  few  houses  of  a  substantial  character  were 
erected  in  some  portions  of  the  country,  home-made  bricks 
being  generally  employed  when  they  could  be  obtained,  and 
the  character  of  the  buildings  admitted,  which  was  but  sel¬ 
dom,  as  wood  and  stone  entered  largely  into  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  the  great  proportion  of  all  buildings.  The  inventive 
genius  of  the  new  nation  was  not  much  stimulated  to  im- 


THE  HISTORY  OF  BRICKS. 


35 


proving  on  the  manner  of  the  mother  country  in  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  bricks.  In  fact,  those  which  we  then  made  were 
poorly  moulded  and  burned,  and  compared  unfavorably 
with  the  common  building  bricks  of  English  and  Dutch 
manufacture. 

But  at  the  present  time,  for  both  quantity  and  quality,  we 
have  no  equal  in  any  nation  of  the  world,  and  for  this  we 
are  largely  indebted  to  the  American  patent  system,  which 
greatly  fosters  and  encourages  development  in  this  line,  as 
in  other  and  kindred  arts. 

The  machines  for  the  production  of  bricks  which  are  fully 
described  in  other  portions  of  this  volume  are  fruits  of  the 
system,  and  they  are  evidences  of  a  high  civilization,  and 
but  tokens  which  are  in  time  to  place  the  manufactures  of 
the  world  under  our  control. 

The  short-sighted  policy  of  Great  Britain  in  charging 
enormous  fees  for  patents  and  giving  to  the  inventor  or  pat¬ 
entee  absolutely  no  protection,  but  compelling  him  to  go  into 
the  courts  and  litigate  his  rights,  which,  to  a  man  of  even 
moderate  means,  in  case  of  defeat,  brings  ruin  and  disaster 
upon  himself  and  family,  retards  the  industries  and  arts  of 
the  kingdom.  This  ruin  has  been  the  case  often,  when  the 
defeated  one  had  absolutely  the  best  legal  and  equitable 
rights  to  the  disputed  invention ;  but  through  the  protracted 
struggle  and  ever-increasing  costs  he  has  been  bankrupted, 
and  then  defeated  upon  points  which  had  no  bearing  upon 
the  merits  of  the  case,  but  were  simply  technical.  Their 
system  breeds  litigation ;  it  will  give  you  a  patent  for  an  in¬ 
vention  to-day,  upon  payment  of  the  fees ;  it  will  issue  one 


36 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


to  a  second  party  for  identically  the  same  invention  to-mor¬ 
row,  upon  the  same  terms ;  and  next  day,  if  I  should  apply, 
they  would  grant  one  to  me,  looking  out  for  nothing  but 
the  legal  fees;  and  so  on,  for  any  and  all  persons  applying. 

If  the  patent  for  which  the  three  of  us  were  granted  the 
same  rights  should  be  valuable,  a  triangular  legal  fight 
would  commence ;  one  would,  of  course,  be  certain  to  win, 
and  the  other  two  would  be  just  as  certain  to  lose,  and  the 
chances  would  be  that  the  money  which  two  of  us  had  paid 
to  the  government  for  fees,  each  believing  that  we  had  prior 
rights,  would  eventually  be  expended  for  our  support  in  the 
almshouse,  the  invention  having  made  one  of  us,  and  bank¬ 
rupted  the  remaining  two  of  the  original  equally  confident 
trio. 

Should  any  subject  of  the  British  government  conduct 
his  business  upon  the  same  principles  that  it  does  in  the 
granting  of  patents,  he  would  be  a  felon,  and  transportation 
or  imprisonment  would  be  the  penalty. 

Let  some  subject  sell  the  same  merchandise  or  other  com¬ 
modity  or  valuable  thing  to  several  different  persons,  and 
take  full  payment  from  each,  and  giving  no  notice  of  the 
previous  sales,  he  would  not  desire  to  remain  any  longer 
than  was  absolutely  necessary  in  reach  of  British  law.  But 
this  is  exactly  what  that  government  does  all  the  time  in 
issuing  patents;  they  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  they  are 
morally  bound  not  to  accept  payment  more  than  one  time 
for  exactly  the  same  thing.  Restrictions  should  be  imme¬ 
diately  made  in  this  matter  and  invention  encouraged,  not 
impeded,  or  many  of  their  most  important  manufactures  will 


THE  HISTORY  OF  BRICKS. 


37 


pass  to  us  by  right  of  extra  diligence,  and  in  accordance 
with  all  the  laws  of  progress.  The  serious  defect  which 
has  been  noted  in  the  .English  system  stands  in  the  way  of 
that  development  of  the  industrial  arts  which  is  the  aim  of 
patent  law,  the  intent  of  which  it  is  the  solemn  duty  of 
legislation  to  foster  and  safely  guard,  as  well  as  to  remove 
all  impediments  to  its  equitable  and  moral  progress.  One 
of  the  main  principles  of  the  American  system  is  that  no 
invalid  patent  shall  issue,  and  that  a  patent  shall  only  be 
for  a  new  invention  or  discovery,  and  able  to  stand  the  test  of 
litigation. 

Since  writing  the  above,  and  while  this  volume  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  publishers,  the  English  patent  law  has 
been  so  modified  as  to  issue,  from  January  1,  1884,  letters 
only  to  the  person  or  persons  claiming  to  be  the  inventors ; 
also  largely  curtailing  the  fees  during  the  first  four  years  of 
the  life  of  the  patent ;  but  leaving  the  remainder  of  the  law 
as  to  other  fees,  length  of  patent,  and  many  other  matters, 
quite  in  its  old  form.  The  idea  seems  to  have  been,  if  a 
patent  was  valuable  it  would  develop  itself  during  the  early 
period,  or  the  first  four  years,  and  could  stand  the  other 
heavy  taxes  or  fees.  This  is  a  great  error ;  many  patents 
are  issued  which  are  far  ahead  of  the  times  at  which  they 
appear,  and  it  requires  a  much  longer  period  for  develop¬ 
ment.  The  life  of  a  patent  is  like  the  life  of  many  men — 
the  last  years  are  often  the  best  and  most  profitable  in  many 
ways.  The  new  law  provides  for  interferences,  and  allows 
the  application  to  be  sent  by  mail  instead  of  being  delivered 
by  hand,  as  formerly.  Other  points  will  be  noted  directly. 


38 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


Some  few  of  the  changes  are  worth  imitating;  but  the 
majority  of  them  are  of  but  small,  and  no  real  practical 
value.  The  ground  around  the  roots  of  the  defects  in  the 
law  has  been  slightly  loosened,  but  the  evil  still  remains, 
and  must  be  wholly  eradicated  in  order  to  fully  stimulate  the 
inventive  genius  of  the  masses.  A  country  that  professes  to 
be  so  strongly  in  favor  of  free  trade  should  not  exempt  about 
all  the  wants  of  the  body  and  then  tax  so  heavily  the  fruits 
of  the  mind.  The  patent  law  of  England  is  still  too  much  a 
relic  of  a  period  which  is  long  since  past,  as  is  also  its  com¬ 
mon  law,  and  many  of  its  customs  and  institutions.  It  is 
right  for  nations  to  be  conservative  in  a  moderate  degree ; 
but  extremes  always  measure  out  full  punishment. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  salient  points  of  the  new 
English  patent  law  : — 

The  patent  must  contain  one  or  more  distinct  claims. 
Heretofore  it  has  been  usual,  but  not  necessary,  to  have 
claims. 

When  the  complete  specification  is  accepted,  it  is  made 
public  and  advertised;  and  any  one  may  within  two  months 
oppose  the  sealing  of  the  patent  for  these  causes :  That  the 
invention  has  been  taken  by  fraud  from  some  one ;  that  it 
is  already  patented  in  Great  Britain ;  and,  that  the  applica¬ 
tion  has  been  reported  against  as  appearing  to  contain  the 
same  invention  as  a  prior  dated  application.  This  oppo¬ 
sition  may  be  contested,  and  is  theoretically  a  safeguard, 
but  it  opens  the  door  to  enemies,  or  to  those  having  contrary 
interests,  to  worry  poor  inventors. 

When  the  right  to  convey  by  deed  begins  is  not  stated; 


THE  HISTORY  OF  BRICKS. 


39 


it  commenced  previously  only  after  the  sealing  of  the  patent. 
But  under  this  new  law  the  comptroller  is  made  judge  as  to 
the  ownership  of  patents,  and  anything  which  satisfies  him 
is  enough  to  convey  the  title.  So  that  whoever  he  enters  in 
the  register  of  patents  as  the  proprietor  has  absolute  power 
over  the  invention,  to  sell  it,  to  grant  licenses,  to  deal  with 
it,  and  to  give  effectual  receipts  for  any  of  these  things. 

The  owner  can  ask  for  the  privilege  of  amending  his  pat¬ 
ent,  so  as  to  disclaim,  correct,  or  explain  any  part.  But  this 
must  be  advertised,  and  within  a  month  any  one  may  op¬ 
pose  it.  This  may  lead  to  a  contest  as  to  what  he  may  be 
allowed  to  modify.  No  change  can  be  made  to  give  the 
patentee  more  than,  or  different  from,  what  he  claimed  at 
first. 

A  new  departure  is  that  the  patent  binds  the  government. 
The  government  may  use  the  invention  by  agreement  with 
the  patentee,  and  even  without  that,  on  terms  to  be  fixed 
by  the  treasury,  after  hearing  the  parties.  But  the  patentee 
can  claim  payment  therefor  as  a  right,  which  is  now  recog¬ 
nized  in  him  as  against  the  crown. 

The  courts  and  committee  of  the  privy  council  are  em¬ 
powered  to  call  in  the  aid  of  an  assessor,  specially  qualified, 
to  assist  in  trying  and  hearing  suits  for  infringements  and 
other  matters  relating  to  patents  and  inventions  which  law¬ 
yers  generally  do  not  understand.  This  is  a  good  point, 

and  one  we  will  need  to  copy. 

The  Board  of  Trade  may  compel  the  patentee  to  grant 

licenses  on  such  terms  as  may  be  deemed  just,  in  default  of 
his  granting  licenses  on  reasonable  terms,  where  it  is  com- 


i 


40 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


plained  that  the  patent  is  not  worked  in  the  kingdom,  that 
the  reasonable  requirements  of  the  public  cannot  be  sup¬ 
plied,  or  that  any  one  is  prevented  from  using  another 
invention  to  the  best  advantage. 

There  are  provisions  adopted  looking  to  the  establishment 
of  an  international  protection  for  inventions,  trade-marks 
and  designs,  so  that  when  a  patent  was  applied  for  in  one 
country  in  such  union,  the  applicant  would  have  seven 
months  to  make  his  applications  in  the  others,  without  risk 
of  loss  from  publication  or  subsequent  applicants. 

Nearly  every  civilized  nation  on  the  globe  has  provided 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree  for  the  encouragement  and  pro¬ 
tection  of  inventive  skill  and  industry ;  and  for  generations 
exclusive  privileges  have  been  granted  to  the  producers  of 
things  new  and  useful  in  art,  science,  literature,  and  me¬ 
chanics.  Upon  the  experience  and  practical  workings  of 
the  various  systems  of  the  Old  World,  our  laws  and  prac¬ 
tice  have  been  founded  and  perfected.  Prior  to  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  the  Federal  Constitution,  some  of  the  States,  or  pro¬ 
vincial  governments,  granted  to  inventors  exclusive  privi¬ 
leges,  but  for  obvious  reasons  these  were  of  little  or  no 
value.  By  act  of  April  10,  1790,  the  first  American  patent 
system  was  founded.  Thomas  Jefferson  inspired  it,  and 
may  be  said  to  have  been  the  father  of  the  American  Patent 
Office.  He  took  great  pride  in  it,  it  is  said,  and  gave  per¬ 
sonal  consideration  to  every  application  that  was  made  for  a 
patent  during  the  years  between  1790  and  1793,  while  the 
power  of  revision  and  rejection  granted  by  that  act  remained 
in  force.  It  is  related  that  the  granting  of  a  patent  was 


THE  HISTORY  OF  BRICKS. 


41 


held  to  be  in  these  early  times  quite  an  event  in  the  history 
of  the  State  Department,  where  the  clerical  part  of  the 
work  was  then  performed. 

During  the  years  from  1790  to  1812  inventors  confined 
themselves  almost  wholly  to  agricultural  and  commercial 
objects.  Implements  for  tilling  the  soil  and  converting  its 
products  and  machinery  for  navigation  attracted  most  atten¬ 
tion.  Manufactures,  except  of  a  purely  domestic  character 
for  domestic  purposes,  were  hardly  known ;  the  arts  were 
poorly  understood  and  little  cultivated.  The  necessities  of 
the  New  World  drove  its  enterprise  into  other  channels, 
and  its  people  looked  to  Europe  for  manufactured  products 
not  directly  connected  with  the  necessities  of  life  or  de¬ 
manded  by  the  development  of  its  commerce  and  agricul¬ 
ture.  The  war  of  1812,  however,  forced  our  people  to 
attempt  production  in  many  branches  of  manufacture  and 
industry  heretofore  almost  wholly  uncultivated,  and  the  re¬ 
sult  was  the  most  remarkable  development  of  human  inge¬ 
nuity  ever  known  to  any  age  or  country.  It  is  a  source  of 
great  regret  that  no  well-preserved  history  of  American 
inventions  dating  from  this  time  is  in  existence,  and  that  no 
classified  list  of  models  which  were  in  the  Patent  Office  at 
the  time  of  the  fire  in  1836  can  be  obtained.  The  earliest 
date  that  can  be  reached  is  January  21,  1823,  and  that  is 
only  partially  complete. 

Improvements  in  modes  or  machines  for  manufacturing 
common  bricks  received  but  little  attention  until  about 
1 840 ;  previously  they  were  more  remarkable  for  uniqueness 
in  some  special  point  of  but  small  importance,  than  for  any 


42 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


generally  good  achievements ;  that  is,  no  attention  was  paid 
to  the  result  of  the  brick  after  it  came  from  the  kiln ;  the 
whole  idea  seemed  to  be  to  shape  or  mould  it  in  some  man¬ 
ner.  For  instance,  one  machine  was  made  like  a  box  now 
used  by  plasterers  to  run  off  their  lime ;  it  was  elevated 
slightly,  and  the  mud,  which  was  mixed  in  the  box,  allowed 
to  pass  through  a  grate  into  a  large  framework  having  sides 
about  three  inches  high,  and  divided  by  wires  stretched  the 
length  and  across  it,  which  laid  upon  the  bottom,  and  when 
the  clay  in  the  shallow  box  was  somewhat  hardened  the 
wires  were  raised  and  the  bricks  thereby  cut  and  formed 
into  shape.  The  box,  when  emptied  of  the  clay,  could  be 
easily  moved  on  wheels  running  on  a  plank  gangway,  to 
the  next  shallow  mould-box,  and  so  on.  But  the  slush 
stock  made  in  this  way  was  very  inferior ;  it  would  dry  un¬ 
equally,  be  full  of  cracks,  and  was  subjected  to  no  packing, 
as  in  the  pug-mill,  or  pressure,  as  by  machines  of  to-day,  or 
a  blow,  as  is  done  by  the  hand-moulder,  who  dashes  the 
tempered  and  packed  clay  into  the  mould  with  great  force, 
and  again  forces  it  down  and  closer  together  with  his  hands 
and  plane.  When  the  bricks  came  from  the  kiln  they  were 
light,  very  open  or  porous,  therefore  absorbed  water  readily, 
and  were  entirely  unfit  for  building  purposes. 

The  brick  machines  which  will  be  hereafter  described 
have  remedied  these  great  objections  in  almost  every  par¬ 
ticular.  With  every  machine  and  contrivance  which  is  to 
be  described  in  this  volume  I  am  perfectly  familiar,  and 
have  seen  all  in  actual  operation,  and  for  this  reason 
have  selected  such  for  illustrating  the  different  portions  of 


THE  HISTORY  OF  BRICKS. 


43 


this  work.  There  are  other  contrivances  and  machines 
made  in  this  country  and  in  Europe  that  may  be  equally  as 
good  as  some  herein  described,  and  no  effort  will  be  made 
to  praise  those  which  shall  be  used  for  illustrations  above 
others  which  may  have  equal  claims  for  consideration.  The 
thousands  of  inventions  cannot  all  be  described,  and  rather 
than  fall  into  a  sea  of  error,  so  common  in  mechanical  de¬ 
scriptions,  I  shall  be  compelled  to  select  those  machines  the 
merits  or  demerits  of  which  I  can  personally  discuss. 

Before  any  attempt  is  made  to  describe  the  processes  or 
machines  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  bricks  or  the 
other  branches  of  pottery,  it  is  highly  important  that  there 
should  be  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  character  of  clay, 
and  some  of  its  changes  while  under  the  several  conditions 
to  which  it  is  to  be  subjected.  This  will  be  attempted  in  a 
general  way  for  bricks,  in  the  chapter  which  is  to  imme¬ 
diately  follow,  and  more  especially  for  the  other  subjects  in 
the  portions  of  the  book  devoted  to  them ;  for  instance,  fire¬ 
clays  will  be  more  fully  described  in  Chapter  VI.;  terra¬ 
cotta  clays  in  Chapter  VII. 


44 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  CLAY,  THEIR  CHARAC¬ 
TERISTICS,  QUALITIES,  AND  LOCALITIES. 

The  term  clay  is  applied  to  hydras  silicates  of  aluminum, 
and  is  found,  combined  with  other  substances,  in  beds  of 
varying  depths,  being  produced  for  the  most  part  by  the 
decomposition  of  felspar  rocks,  and  the  precipitation  in 
basins,  from  the  suspension  in  water,  of  the  finely  divided 
impalpable  particles.  The  rocks  containing  a  good  proportion 
of  oxide  or  salts  of  iron  form  red  clays,  and  those  having 
only  traces  form  white  or  light  clays. 

Pure  clay  or  the  hydras  silicate  of  alumina  is  infusible, 
even  in  the  most  intense  heat ;  but  when  mixed  with  the 
alkalies  or  alkaline  earths,  it  becomes  fusible  in  proportion 
to  the  admixture. 

Clay  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  building  bricks  is  an 
abundant  substance,  and  is  commonly  obtained  from  sedi¬ 
mentary  or  alluvial  deposits ;  but  there  is  a  great  difference 
in  the  nature  and  quality  of  clays  found  in  various  localities  ; 
in  Maine,  the  clays  are  light ;  in  Massachusetts  and  Rhode 
Island  they  are  more  fatty ;  the  Haverstraw,  Croton,  and 
other  clays  on  the  Hudson  River  contain  an  undesirable 
“  quicksand,”  and  the  bricks  made  from  them  usually  • 
“  whitewash”  or  “  saltpetre”  upon  exposure  to  the  weather. 


DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  CLAY. 


45 


The  Connecticut  and  northern  New  Jersey  building  brick 
clays  resemble  those  of  the  Hudson  River ;  but  the  belt  ex¬ 
tending  along  the  eastern  portion  of  Pennsylvania,  down 
through  Delaware,  Maryland,  the  District  of  Columbia,  and 
the  northeastern  portion  of  Virginia  contains  the  finest  grade 
of  loamy  clay,  producing  a  superior  quality  of  bricks  of  the 
greatest  hardness,  and  of  a  cherry-red  color. 

Baltimore  and  Philadelphia  lead  in  regard  to  the  quality 
and  color  of  the  finer  grades,  but  the  ornamental  bricks 
produced  in  Philadelphia  are  of  the  highest  rank.  The 
clay  formerly  used  in  Chicago  and  vicinity  was  not  only 
limy,  but  contained  lime  pebbles,  which  rendered  it  very 
difficult  to  work  ;  but  recently  it  is  claimed  that  good  banks 
of  clay  have  been  discovered  near  the  city,  which  promise  to 
produce  superior  bricks.  Around  St.  Louis  the  material  is 
of  a  loamy  nature,  with  veins  of  what  are  called  “joint  clay,” 
which  makes  the  bricks  crack  and  check  in  drying,  and  split 
in  burning.  The  clays  in  the  neighborhood  of  Milwaukee 
are  of  a  plastic  nature,  and  owing  to  only  a  small  per  cent, 
of  iron,  burn  nearly  white,  or  of  a  light  cream  color. 

The  clays  in  many  portions  of  Canada  are  good  for  brick¬ 
making;  they  are  especially  so  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Amprior,  Belleville,  Bell’s  Corners,  Brantford,  Dundas, 
Glenwilliams,  Kincardine,  London,  Pembroke,  Ramsay,  and 
Yorkville,  in  Ontario ;  and  near  Little  River,  Montreal,  Que¬ 
bec,  and  St.  John,  in  Quebec,  also  at  St.  John,  and  many 
portions  of  New  Brunswick.  The  clays  found  near  Halifax, 
Spring ville,  and  Woodstock,  in  Nova  Scotia,  are  passably 
fair  for  brick-making. 


46 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


Good  pottery  clay  is  also  abundant  in  many  of  the  above 
neighborhoods.  The  best  brick-clays  are  composed  of  silica 
three-fifths,  alumina  one-fifth,  and  the  remaining  one-fifth 
of  iron,  lime,  magnesia,  soda,  potash,  and  water ;  if  there  is 
an  excess  of  alumina  over  the  silica,  the  bricks  are  likely  to 
crack  in  the  kiln  ;  but  the  presence  of  a  proper  proportion 
of  silica  remedies  this  by  rendering  the  bricks  more  porous, 
and  good  bricks  have  been  produced  when  the  proportion  of 
silica  reached  as  high  as  85  per  cent,  of  the  whole  body. 
When  sand  is  added  to  the  clay  intended  for  common  bricks, 
it  should  be  clean,  sharp,  fusible,  and  not  too  fine;  right 
selection  and  proportion  insures  a  hard,  strong,  ringing  brick, 
of  good  size  and  color ;  but  for  pressed,  ornamental,  and  other 
higher  grades  of  bricks,  a  finer  sand  should  be  used.  But 
little  can  be  learned,  in  the  present  state  of  knowledge,  from 
chemical  tests  of  clay  and  combinations  of  clay  and  silica 
sand;  the  physical  tests  and  experiments  are  far  superior, 
and  the  actual  quantity  of  sand  or  other  substances  to  be 
employed,  and  which  are  required  for  any  clay,  can  only  be 
determined  by  actual  experimental  mixing  and  burning. 

Sandy  clay  or  loam,  and  calcareous  clay  or  marl,  are  largely 
used  for  brick-making ;  but  if  too  much  lime  be  present,  the 
compound  becomes  too  fusible.  Oxide  of  iron  is  always 
present  in  building  brick-clavs  to  a  more  or  less  degree,  and 
in  the  process  of  burning  it  is  converted  into  peroxide,  and 
imparts  to  the  whole  brick  its  color,  more  or  less  deep  red, 
according  to  the  degree  of  heat  which  the  brick  receives  in 
burning,  and  the  amount  of  the  oxide  that  the  clay  contains. 

It  is  of  no  great  importance  whether  a  clay  contains  a 


DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  CLAY. 


47 


large  or  small  amount  of  sand  mixed  with  it  naturally,  as 
all  clays  require  more  or  less  mixing  and  grinding;  and 
when  sand  is  to  be  added  to  clay,  it  is  generally  easiest  and 
best  mixed  in  such  proportions  as  may  be  required  while 
the  clay  is  being  placed  in  the  pit,  preparatory  to  being  tem¬ 
pered,  or  if  to  he  used  for  machine-made  bricks,  whilst  the 
clay  is  being  pulverized. 

Clays  that  are  rich  in  lime  or  in  the  alkalies,  are  not  good 
for  brick-making,  and  are  the  worst  that  can  be  used  for  the 
purpose ;  in  fact,  when  a  clay  contains  even  three  per  cent, 
of  lime,  a  good  quality  of  brick  cannot  possibly  be  made 
from  it. 

Carbonate  of  lime,  diffused  limestone,  and  lime  pebbles, 
when  they  are  present  in  brick-clays,  are  a  decided  hin- 
derance  to  the  production  of  even  a  passable  quality  of 
building  bricks,  for  in  the  kiln  the  limestone  and  lime  peb¬ 
bles  are  converted  into  caustic  lime,  and  when  the  bricks 
are  used  below  ground,  or  for  exposed  walls,  the  moisture 
and  carbonic  acid,  which  penetrate  to  every  part  of  a  brick, 
slack  the  nodules  of  lime,  the  swelling  causing  the  brick 
to  burst  and  break  to  pieces.  Should  the  bricks  be  used  for 
“filling  in,”  or  inside  and  unexposed  walls,  the  dampness 
from  the  mortar  used  in  laying  them,  and  also  that  con¬ 
tained  in  the  plastering  would,  by  producing  the  same  burst¬ 
ing  and  breaking,  destroy  the  finished  face  of  the  inside 
walls.  These  are  some  of  the  evils  which  result  from  the 
badly  made  bricks  formerly  so  freely  used  in  Chicago,  and 
arise  from  the  large  amount  of  lime  pebbles  in  the  clay, 
and  the  neglect  of  finely  pulverizing  or  thoroughly  sifting 


48 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


the  clay,  which  can  easily  be  done  by  machinery,  at  but  a 
small  additional  cost. 

Oyster-shells  and  iron  pyrites  are  not  uncommonly  pre¬ 
sent  in  clays,  and  in  order  to  make  a  durable  and  well- 
colored  brick  they  must  be  very  finely  pulverized  or  sepa¬ 
rated  from  the  material.  Clay  taken  from  the  seashore,  or 
without  or  beneath  the  sea-washes,  or  from  places  in  or 
near  salt-formations,  will  not  burn  into  good  bricks.  Before 
they  receive  heat  sufficient  to  burn  them  into  hard  bricks 
they  will  fuse,  warp,  twist,  and  agglutinate  together  upon 
the  surface,  and  in  the  arches  of  the  kiln  they  44  run”  or 
melt  quickly  into  unshapely  masses  of  molten  clay  and 
form  44  burrs”  or  clinkers. 

A  very  interesting,  but  unfortunately  a  very  little  under¬ 
stood,  class  of  phenomena  takes  place  when  bricks  made 
from  the  material  which  we  have  just  considered,  or  those 
that  contain  but  a  small  amount  of  it,  are  exposed  to  cer¬ 
tain  conditions.  In  the  fall  of  the  year,  when  heavy  rains 
are  prevalent,  and  at  all  seasons  in  damp  positions,  in  old 
works  as  well  as  new,  brick  walls  are  often  covered  with  a 
crystalline  substance  of  a  white  fleecy  appearance,  suggest¬ 
ive  of  hoar-frost,  and  of  a  slightly  acid  flavor,  which  sub¬ 
stance  works  its  way  through  any  ordinary  coat  of  paint, 
and,  as  it  absorbs  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  in  efflor¬ 
escing,  it  renders  the  walls  damp  on  the  surface,  and  carries 
off  the  paint  in  large  patches,  and  the  process  is  called  by 
the  English  workmen  44  saltpetring,”  and  sometimes  in  this 
country  it  is  termed  44  whitewashing ;”  but  it  is,  in  fact,  the 
production  of  saltpetre  from  the  materials  employed  in  the 


DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  CLAY. 


49 


construction  of  walls.  The  disagreeable  effect  it  produces 
upon. decorations,  internal  as  well  as  external,  should  render 
the  research  of  its  cause  highly  interesting  to  the  architect 
and  the  builder,  and  its  action  of  greatly  lessening  durability 
of  stone,  as  shown  in  the  appearance  of  portions  of  the  new 
Parliament  Building  in  London,  is  such  that  the  study  of 
this  singular  chemical  phenomenon  should  engage  the  at¬ 
tention  of  engineers  to  an  equal  extent.  It  is  not  always 
caused  by  the  material  of  which  the  bricks  are  made,  but 
sometimes  by  the  sand,  and  often  by  the  lime  employed  in 
making  the  mortar.  Sea-sand,  unless  washed  in  fresh  water 
and  exposed  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  one  year,  always 
produces  it. 

Saltpetre  is  a  nitrate  of  potassa,  and  although  it  is  usually 
regarded  as  the  sole  cause  of  the  appearances  which  have 
been  described,  it  is  far  from  being  the  only  substance  pro¬ 
duced  in  the  particular  instances,  as  the  nitrate  of  soda  and 
the  chloride  of  potassium  are  often  met  with  in  connection 
with  saltpetre.  But  few  chemists  pay  attention  to  the  fact 
that  nearly  all  limestones  contain  a  certain  quantity  of  soda 
and  potassa ;  or  at  least  in  the  analyses  in  chemical  works 
no  mention  is  made  of  their  presence. 

These  saltpetre-exudations  upon  the  facing-brick  of  build¬ 
ings  commonly  appear  in  the  form  of  unsightly  whitish 
blotches  on  the  surfaces.  They  are  especially  noticeable 
when  such  walls  are  constructed  of  an  outer  facing  of  fine 
pressed  brick,  and  an  inner  or  main  wall  of  common  brick. 
These  blotches  are  due  primarily  to  soluble  alkalies  and 


4 


50 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


alkaline  earths  present  as  impurities  in  the  lower  grade  of 
clays  from  which  building  brick  are  made,  and  to  the  lime 
and  magnesia  from  calcareous  pebble  deposits  present  in 
most  of  these  clays,  also  to  the  lime  and  magnesia  of  the 
mortar  with  which  the  common  brick  are  laid.  The  evil 
is  further  promoted  by  the  manner  of  constructing  the 
walls.  These  walls  are  commonly  built  with  the  facing  of 
one  width  of  a  brick,  the  other  part  being  of  one  or  more 
lengths  of  bricks  to  form  the  thickness  desired,  the  facing 
being  of  pressed  brick.  Such  brick  are  commonly  made 
of  even,  straight  surfaces,  and  of  suitable  size  to  lay  a  close 
joint,  while  common  brick  are  made  roughly,  of  uneven  sur¬ 
faces,  and  laid  with  a  wide,  thick  joint.  In  building  these 
walls  the  facing-course  of  pressed  brick  is  tied  to  the  main 
wall  of  common  brick  by  interlacing  courses  of  rough 
brick,  called  “  headers,”  which  are  made  to  penetrate  and 
overlap  the  longitudinal  rows  or  stretchers  of  the  face- 
brick  at  every  fifth  course.  This  overlapping  or  interlacing 
of  the  respective  courses  of  pressed  and  common  brick 
serves  well  for  tying  or  binding  the  wall  together,  but  is 
highly  objectionable  on  account  of  the  intimate  capillary 
contact  of  the  facing-course  of  pressed  brick  with  the  com¬ 
mon  brick  and  with  the  mortar  thereby  inoculating  and 
supplying  the  efflorescing  germs  to  the  face-brick.  It  is  also 
the  practice  in  constructing  such  walls  to  provide  a  mortar- 
paste  for  the  facing  course  of  brick,  made  of  bone  or  marble 
dust  combined  with  sand  and  a  suitable  coloring  matter, 
such  mortar  being  laid  on  sparingly,  while  the  inner  layers 


DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  CLAY. 


51 


or  courses  of  common  brick  are  laid  with  thick  joints  of 
common  lime-mortar,  the  mortar  being  grouted  into  the 
joints  and  between  the  two  contiguous  courses  of  front  and 
common  brick,  thus  making  the  entire  wall  of  pressed  and 
common  brick  practically  one  body.  The  general  practice  is 
to  wet  or  fully  saturate  the  common  brick  with  water  just 
prior  to  laying  them  into  the  wall,  to  prevent  the  too  rapid 
absorption  of  the  water  from  the  mortar  by  the  brick,  which 
causes  the  mortar  to  set  too  quickly.  The  substances  of  this 
wall-coating  are  sulphate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  magnesia,  and 
sulphate  of  lime,  the  first  being  commonly  present  in  vari¬ 
able  quantities  in  the  clays,  especially  the  drift-clays,  being 
the  result  of  igneous  agencies  and  of  chemical  changes.  In 
the  second  case,  the  magnesia  in  the  brick-clay  or  magnesia 
in  the  lime  of  the  mortar,  is  converted  into  the  sulphate  of 
magnesia  either  by  the  sulphurous  fumes  evolved  in  the 
process  of  burning  in  the  kilns  from  iron  pyrites  present  in  the 
clays  or  the  sulphurous  fumes  of  the  fuel,  or  by  the  absorp¬ 
tion  of  sulphurous  vapors  of  coal-gases  from  the  general 
atmosphere.  A  like  conversion  takes  place  from  the  lime  of 
the  clay  and  mortar,  which  is  converted  into  the  sulphate  of 
lime.  These  salts  are  readily  dissolved  by  the  water  with 
which  the  common  brick  are  saturated  and  the  water  of  the 
mortar-paste,  and  are  readily  absorbed  by  the  dry  facing 
brick  of  the  wall,  evaporating  through  the  pores  of  such 
brick  and  efflorescing  upon  the  surface. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  obviate  these  defects  by  so  placing 
tarred  felt  as  to  form  a  thin  wall  between  the  facing  and 


52  '  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

common  bricks,  and  to  make  cavities  in  the  top  and  bottom 
faces  of  the  flat  sides  of  the  front  bricks,  and  connect  the 
pressed  brick  wall  to  the  common  brick  backing  by  pieces 
of  galvanized  sheet-iron,  punctured  so  as  to  roughen  them, 
and  laid  between  the  flat  joints  of  the  bricks. 

During  the  autumn  of  1882  more  of  this  efflorescence  was 
to  be  seen  upon  buildings  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  than 
had  appeared  for  many  years ;  and  old  structures,  such  as  the 
Pennsylvania  Hospital,  in  Philadelphia,  which  were  usually 
free  from  it,  appeared  to  have  developed  as  much  of  the  de¬ 
posit  as  those  in  the  process  of  erection,  as  for  instance  the 
new  Technical  College  at  South  Kensington,  London,  which 
was  also  covered  in  places  with  this  objectionable  eruption. 

The  question  of  what  this  efflorescence  was  and  the 
cause  was  instigated  by  various  scientific  societies,  the  Acad¬ 
emy  of  Natural  Sciences,  in  Philadelphia,  discussing  it  at 
length ;  and  the  substance  of  their  decision  was,  that  it  was 
simply  ordinary  Epsom  salts  or  sulphate  of  magnesia,  which 
dissolved  in  the  water  passing  over  the  bricks,  and  in  evap¬ 
orating  left  the  deposit ;  the  sulphurous  acid,  resulting 
from  burning  coal,  combining  in  the  presence  of  moisture 
with  the  magnesia  in  the  mortar  and  forming  the  salts. 

The  earlier  investigators  believed  that  the  production  of 
the  saltpetre  was  to  be  explained  by  the  combination  of  the 
nitrogen  present  in  the  walls  with  the  metallic  oxides  they 
might  contain  ;  that  the  nitrogen  arose  from  a  previous 
combination  of  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  with  the  azote 
supplied  by  the  animal  matter  contained  in  the  building 
materials. 


DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  CLAY. 


53 


This  theory  remained  unquestioned  until  M.  Longcamp 
proposed  another,  by  which  he  sought  the  explanation  of  the 
production  of  the  nitrogen,  by  supposing  that  the  carbonates 
of  lime  and  magnesia,  taken  in  a  proper  degree  of  commi¬ 
nution,  and  properly  wetted,  could  absorb  air,  condense  it, 
and  transform  it  into  nitric  acid  in  the  course  of  time ;  caus¬ 
ing  it  to  enter  into  combination  with  the  lime  and  magne¬ 
sia,  forming  the  nitrates  of  those  two  substances,  and  more 
readily  enabling  it  to  combine  with  the  potassium,  espe¬ 
cially  if  it  were  present  in. the  form  of  a  carbonate. 

But  whatever  theory  may  be  adopted  as  to  its  origin,  there 
appear  to  be  certain  conditions  which  facilitate  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  the  saltpetre,  viz :  a  degree  of  humidity,  about  equal 
to  that  of  garden  earth  is  very  favorable ;  between  60°  and 
70°  F.  nitrification  is  the  most  abundant ;  at  32°  it  does  not 
take  place. 

Clays  containing  a  large  amount  of  carbonaceous  matter 
naturally  mixed  with  it  are  very  objectionable,  as  bricks 
when  made  from  such  clays  will,  when  wetted  in  the  wall, 
pass  out  soluble  compounds  which  discolor  the  walls,  whether 
they  are  painted  or  not,  and  plastering  or  stucco-work  is 
discolored  by  them  the  same  as  when  bricks  which  have 
once  been  used  in  the  inside  of  a  chimney  flue  and  become 
blackened  are  re-used  in  new  work. 

It  would  be  useless  to  attempt  decorative  work  of  any 
description  upon  brick  walls,  the  materials  of  which  contain 
a  large  amount  of  carbonaceous  matter,  or  if  the  bricks  be 
made  from  the  alluvial  mud  of  the  embouchures  of  rivers, 


54 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


as  no  possible  precaution  can  prevent  the  entire  destruction 
of  the  work. 

No  class  of  clay  taken  freshly  from  its  bed  is  in  a  condi¬ 
tion  to  be  at  once  moulded  into  tempered  bricks,  even  if  it 
be  of  suitable  composition,  and  it  should  first  be  exposed  to 
the  weather  until  its  particles  are  disintegrated,  when  it  can 
be  kneaded  into  a  mass  of  uniform  consistency ;  this  is  best 
effected  by  the  action  of  frost,  the  water  diffused  through 
the  substance  expanding  by  freezing  and  breaking  in  every 
direction.  fl 

The  longer  the  exposure  is  continued,  the  more  effectually 
is  the  clay  reduced,  and  easily  tempered  and  moulded,  but 
the  digging  of  clay  in  the  autumn  is  not  always  attended  to. 

To  neglect  it,  however,  is  to  run  a  great  risk  of  having 
bricks  unsound,  as  well  as  faulty  in  shape.  Moistened  or 
heated  clay  emits  a  peculiar  smell,  called  argillaceous ;  the 
same  term  is  also  applied  to  the  peculiar  taste. 

The  argillaceous  earths  that  are  generally  suitable  for  the 
manufacture  of  building  bricks  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes,  viz : — 

1.  Loams,  which  are  light  sandy  clays. 

2.  Pure  clays,  composed  principally  of  alumina  and 
silica. 

3.  Marls,  which  are  earths  that  contain  an  unusually 
large  proportion  of  lime. 

It  is  not  often  that  earths  are  found  that  are  suitable  for 
brick-making  without  mixing  with  something  else,  as  the 
loams  are  usually  so  open,  that  in  order  to  bind  the  earth,  a 


DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  CLAY. 


55 


flux,  in  the  nature  of  lime,  has  to  be  added ;  and  if  it  hap¬ 
pens  that  a  loam  requires  no  mixing,  the  difference  in  the 
working  of  adjacent  strata  in  the  same  field  is  so  great  that 
in  order  to  produce  regularity  in  the  size  and  color  of  the 
bricks,  it  is  necessary  to  mix  and  temper  two  or  three  differ¬ 
ent  kinds  together,  and  for  the  same  reason,  and  to  prevent 

“  checking,”  the  pure  clays  also  require  mixing  with  some 

« 

milder  earth,  loam,  or  sand. 

In  working  marls,  great  trouble  is  experienced  from  skerry 
or  impure  limestone,  which  abounds  in  marl ;  but  should  a 
very  small  piece  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  clay,  it  is  certain 
to  destroy  the  brick  into  which  it  finds  its  way.  To  obviate 
these  bad  results,  heavy  iron  rolls  are  used  to  pulverize  the 
marls  and  the  limestone  found  in  them. 

Clay  is  the  only  substance  in  the  mineral  kingdom  that 
possesses  plasticity,  and  if  sand  be  in  large  proportion  in 
loam,  or  if  calcareous  matters  predominate  in  marl,  so  as  to 
deprive  either  material  of  plasticity,  it  is  no  longer  clay. 
Those  clays  which  possess  a  high  degree  of  plasticity  are 
called  long  or  fat;  but  when  having  but  little  plasticity,  they 
are  termed  short,  meagre,  or  lean ;  but,  in  the  language  of 
the  brick-yard,  the  first  is  called  “  strong  clay,”  and  the 
latter  “  weak  clay.” 

Mixed  with  considerable  water,  clays  are  more  or  less 
plastic,  the  degree  of  plasticity  depending  on  their  purity 
and  peculiarities  of  composition ;  and,  if  possible,  they  should 
not  be  hauled  into  the  brick-yard,  dried  by  a  scorching  sun 
or  drying  wind,  but  in  their  moist  and  natural  condition ;  for 
as  they  shrink  and  harden  in  drying,  the  labor  of  tempering 


56 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

I 

them  into  brick  pug  is  largely  increased,  and  then  it  is  not 
so  good,  the  plastic  nature  of  the  clay  being  less  smooth  and 
free  than  before. 

Oxide  of  iron,  lime,  magnesia,  potash,  silica,  bitumen,  and 
fragments  of  rock  are  substances  that  impair  the  plasticity 
of  clay,  and  they  impress  upon  it  certain  characters  that  are 
of  much  importance  to  the  manufacturer. 

In  England  the  process  of  brick-making  is  conducted 
somewhat  differently  from  what  it  is  in  this  country ;  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  London  the  principal  supplies  of  brick-clays 
are  obtained  from  the  alluvial  deposits  lying  above  the  London 
clay,  the  blue  clay  not  being  much  used  for  brick-making. 
The  material  employed  is  a  kind  of  gravelly  loam,  weak  on 
the  surface,  and  formerly  gradually  passing  into  either  a  strong 
clay  or  marl,  or,  as  it  is  usually  called,  “  malm,”  which  is  an 
earth  suitable  for  making  bricks,  without  any  addition ;  but  3 
there  is  now  but  little  natural  malm  to  be  had,  as  this  class 
of  clay  is  nearly  exhausted.  For  making  the  best  quality 
of  bricks,  which  are  called  “  malms,”  an  artificial  substitute 
is  obtained  by  mixing  together  chalk  and  clay,  previously 
reduced  to  a  pulp  in  a  wash-mill ;  this  pulp  is  run  off  into 
shallow  pits,  where  it  remains  until  it  has  become  of  suffi¬ 
cient  consistency  for  subsequent  operations;  but  this  process 
is  resorted  to  for  the  best  quality  of  bricks  only,  as  the  ex- 
pense  is  too  great  for  the  commoner  kinds. 

The  strong  clay  is  not  usually  stony,  and  is  generally 
worked  without  passing  through  the  wash-mill,  and  the 
earth  is  mixed  with  chalk,  reduced  to  the  consistency  of 

| 

cream,  -which  diminishes  the  contraction  of  the  clay  and 


DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  CLAY. 


57 


improves  the  gray  color  of  the  bricks ;  hut  the  loams  are 
usually  so  full  of  gravel  that  it  is  not  possible  to  free  them 
from  stones  without  passing  them  through  the  wash-mill, 
and  their  texture  is  so  open  or  loose,  that  a  mixture  of 
chalk  is  also  necessary  to  bind  the  mass  together,  and  to 
take  up  the  excess  of  fusing  silica  in  the  process  of  burning. 

Maiming  is  not  the  only  peculiarity  of  London  brick¬ 
making,  as  the  bricks  are  not  burned  in  kilns  as  with  us, 
but  are  “  clamped;”  and,  to  make  this  effective,  it  is  neces¬ 
sary  to  mix  the  fuel  with  the  brick-earth  so  that  each  brick 
will  contain  the  fuel  necessary  for  its  own  vitrification, 
which  fuel  is  domestic  ashes,  and  they  are  collected  in  large 
heaps  and  sifted.  The  siftings  which  are  called  “  soil,”  are 
thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  brick-earth  in  the  process 
of  soiling  and  tempering. 

The  cinders,  or,  as  they  are  called,  “  breeze,”  are  used  as 
fuel  to  ignite  the  lower  tiers  of  bricks,  from  which  the  heat 
gradually  spreads  over  the  whole  of  the  clamp,  and  no 
spaces  are  left  between  the  bricks,  which  are  closely  stacked, 
that  the  heat  to  which  they  are  exposed  may  be  as  uniform 
as  possible. 

The  usual  proportions  of  breeze  for  every  one  hundred 
thousand  bricks  are  about  twelve  chaldrons  of  cinders  or 
breeze  to  light  the  clamp,  and  about  thirty-five  chaldrons  of 
the  sifted  ashes  or  soil  mixed  with  the  brick-earth. 

This  manner  of  burning  bricks  should  not  be  confounded 
with  the  process  called  “clamping”  so  common,  and  prac¬ 
tised  largely  both  in  this  country  and  in  some  parts  of  Great 
Britain  remote  from  London,  which  is  usually  a  method  of 


58  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

burning  bricks  by  placing  them  in  a  temporary  kiln,  the 
walls  of  which  are  generally  built  of  “  green”  or  unburned 
bricks.  The  name  of  clamp  is  also  applied  to  a  pile  of 
bricks  arranged  for  burning  in  the  usual  way,  and  encased 
with  a  thin  wall  of  burned  bricks  and  daubed  over  with  mud 
to  retain  the  heat. 

The  London  brick-makers  obtain  their  supply  of  sand  from 
the  bottom  of  the  river  Thames,  near  Woolwich,  where  it  is 
raised  into  boats  used  for  that  purpose,  and  the  bricks  made 
by  these  brick-makers  are  of  the  weakest  kind,  being  much 
inferior  in  quality  to  those  made  by  their  predecessors  from 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  Dutch  clinkers,  or  paving  bricks,  have  for 
many  centuries  been  of  the  hardest  kind  and  of  a  superior 
quality,  and  are  manufactured  principally  at  Moor,  a  village 
about  two  miles  from  Gouda,  in  South  Holland,  the  prin¬ 
cipal  brick-fields  being  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Yessel, 
from  which  the  chief  material  is  derived.  This  is  no  other 
than  the  slime  deposited  by  the  river  on  its  shores  and  at 
the  bottom.  The  slime  of  the  Haarlem  Meer  is  also  exten¬ 
sively  used  for  this  purpose,  and  the  men  who  collect  this 
in  boats  have  long  poles  with  a  cutting  circle  of  iron  at  the 
end,  also  a  bag  net  with  which  they  lug  up  the  slime;  and 
the  hard  paving  bricks  used  for  their  streets  are  made  with 
a  mixture  of  this  slime  and  sand. 

Building  bricks  are  made  extensively  at  Utrecht,  in  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  from  the  brick-clay  which 
abounds  in  the  vicinity. 

The  manner  of  taking  material  for  brick-making  from  the 


DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  CLAY. 


59 


bottoms  of  rivers  and  lakes  with  poles  is  not  of  modern  origin, 
as  will  appear  from  the  inscription  which  once  stood  upon 
the  brick  pyramid  of  Howara,  ten  leagues  from  Cairo,  for 
Herodotus  cites  the  following  inscription  as  at  one  time 
standing  upon  it,  the  translation  reading :  “  Do  not  under¬ 
value  me  by  comparing  me  with  pyramids  of  stone,  for  I  am 
better  than  they,  as  Jove  exceeds  the  other  deities.  I  am 
made  of  bricks  from  clay,  brought  up  from  the  bottom  of  the 
lake,  adhering  to  poles.” 

Clay  of  a  superior  quality  for  brick-making  abounds  in 
nearly  every  portion  of  Russia,  and  although  brick-kilns  are 
scattered  all  over  the  empire,  the  total  production  for  1880 
was  only  about  750,000,000,  which  quantity  would  not  more 
than  supply  the  demands  of  the  city  of  London  in  a  busy 
building  year. 

By  reason  of  the  country’s  great  wealth  of  timber  the  pro¬ 
duction  and  consumption  of  bricks  are  by  no  means  in  pro¬ 
portion  to  the  population  of  Russia.  Wooden  buildings  are 
the  rule  and  those  of  brick  construction  the  exception,  nor 
do  the  disastrous  and  too  constantly  recurring  fires,  with 
their  attendant  train  of  misery  and  suffering,  seem  to  have 
much  effect  in  enlightening  the  people.  But  still  some  little 
progress  is  being  made  in  the  production  of  bricks  in  that 
country,  as  will  appear  from  the  increase  in  the  number  ol 
works  as  well  as  greater  rate  of  increase  in  value  of  products. 

In  1867  the  number  of  works  was  2166 ;  but  in  1879 
the  number  had  increased  48.5  per  cent.,  and  was  3217, 
and  employed  33,404  persons,  which  were  about  as  many 
as  were  employed  in  any  other  two  manufacturing  indus- 


60 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


tries  of  Russia  combined,  the  great  mass  of  population  being 
of  course  engaged  in  agriculture. 

The  value  of  the  brick  product  in  1867  was  4,622,667 
rubles,  and  in  1869  it  was  9,740,822  rubles,  or  an  increase 
of  117  per  cent,  in  value.  Excellent  china-clay  or  kaolin  is 
found  abundantly  in  the  neighborhood  of  Gluchove  in  the 
government  of  Tchermigov. 

In  the  northern  part  of  France  the  clays  are  loamy  and 
of  a  fair  quality  for  brick-making ;  they  are  not  deep,  aver¬ 
aging  only  about  two  metres  in  depth,  but  they  gradually 
improve  in  both  quality  and  depth  toward  the  southern  por¬ 
tion.  The  Italian  clays  are  of  a  superior  quality  for  brick¬ 
making;  they  are  naturally  plastic,  and  require  no  sanding. 
Cuban  and  South  American  clays  are  generally  poor  both 
as  regards  strength  and  color. 

There  are  a  number  of  brick-kilns  around  Maracaibo  for 

j 

the  manufacture  of  bricks  and  tiles.  Maracaibo  is  the  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  sovereign  State  of  Zulia,  one  of  the  independent 
States  composing  the  republic  of  Venezuela.  The  city  has 
over  30,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  residence  of  the  President 
of  Zulia.  1 

The  tiles  are  used  both  for  roofing  and  flooring.  There 
are  also  potteries  for  water-jars  and  earthen-ware  pots;  but 
the  supply  is  not  at  all  equal  to  the  demand,  and  large 
numbers  are  continually  imported,  chiefly  from  France. 
Contrary  to  the  usual  run  of  South  x4merican  clays,  that 
in  the  vicinity  of  Maracaibo,  and  in  fact  for  a  great  area 
around  it,  is  pronounced  to  be  of  an  excellent  quality  for 
brick-making. 


DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  CLAY. 


61 


At  one  time  an  attempt  was  made  to  produce  the  common 
class  of  porcelain  ware,  the  materials  for  which  were  also 
found  close  by ;  but,  after  meeting  with  fair  success,  it  was 
not  continued ;  the  lack  of  proper  appliances,  and  the 
scarcity  of  anything  like  skilled  labor  in  this  branch  of  pot¬ 
tery,  being:  the  chief  causes  of  the  discontinuance  of  the 
manufacture. 

Strabo,  a  Greek  geographer,  who  died  about  A.  D.  24, 
speaks  of  bricks  made  of  an  earth  at  Pitane,  in  the  Troad, 
so  light  that  they  would  easily  float  upon  water ;  but,  for 
many  centuries,  the  art  of  making  these  bricks  was  com¬ 
pletely  lost,  until  re-discovered  by  Giovanni  Fabroni  in  Tus¬ 
cany  in  A.  D.  1791,  who,  after  a  great  number  of  trials, 
succeeded  in  making  bricks  that  would  float  on  water,  and 
their  strength  was  but  little  inferior  to  that  of  ordinary 
building  bricks.  They  were  not  only  remarkable  for  their 
extreme  lightness,  but  also  for  their  infusibility,  and  for 
being  very  poor  conductors  of  heat,  as  they  could  be  held 
by  one  end  with  the  bare  hand  while  the  other  was  red 
hot. 

Kiitzing  found  the  material  from  which  these  bricks  were 
made  to  contain  immense  numbers  of  microscopic  silicious 
shells  of  infusoria,  and  similar  earth  has  been  discovered  in 
France  and  Germany ;  but  it  is  not,  as  has  been  supposed, 
the  grayish  substance  that  is  sometimes  found  under  peat 
bogs.  Fabroni  constructed  the  powder  magazine  of  a  wooden 
ship  with  these  bricks,  as  an  experiment,  and  the  vessel 
being  set  on  fire,  sank  without  explosion  of  the  powder. 
In  A.  D.  1832  Count  de  Nantes  and  Foninet,  a  French 


62 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


engineer,  used  them  in  constructing  powder  magazines  and 
other  parts  of  ships,  in  order  to  lessen  danger  from  fire. 

Bricks  of  this  kind  have  been  used  in  Berlin  for  the  con¬ 
struction  of  high-vaulted  ceilings  in  churches,  and  in  other 
positions  where  great  lightness  and  fire-proof  construction 
were  desirable. 

Pumice-stone  detritus  and  certain  varieties  of  volcanic 
tufa  may  readily  be  made  into  bricks  of  great  lightness  that 
will  not  only  possess  an  average  degree  of  strength,  but 
which  will  also  be  poor  conductors  of  heat,  and  clay  could 
be  added  in  order  to  bind  the  material  together. 

Southern  Italy  and  some  portions  of  the  southwestern 
part  of  the  United  States,  as  also  South  America,  are  abun¬ 
dantly  supplied  with  material  from  which  these  bricks  could 
be  very  cheaply  made. 

In  addition  to  the  fireproofing  of  floors,  ceilings,  and 
roofs,  another  practical  and  important  use  to  which  these 
bricks  could  be  put  in  modern  architectural  construction 
would  be  to  use  them  in  a  hollow  form  in  the  place  of  frame 
partitions  in  the  upper  parts  of  buildings  that  it  is  often 
desirable  to  make  fireproof,  but  which  it  is  very  often  not 
possible  to  do  from  the  plan  of  their  construction.  For 
instance,  in  cities,  stores  and  other  buildings  are  often 
erected  of  great  height  and  width,  the  floor-space  being 
sometimes  unobstructed  by  columns  in  the  principal  story, 
which  part  may  be  fireproof,  the  upper  portion  being  divided 
into  smaller  rooms,  the  partitions  for  which  rest  upon  gird¬ 
ers  extending  across  the  building  and  concealed  in  the  floor. 
It  would  not  be  practicable  to  load  these  girders  with  heavy 


DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  CLAY. 


63 


ordinary  brick-work,  but  bricks  as  light  as  those  which  have 
been  described  could  be  employed  without  material  addition 
of  weight.  In  this  way  the  danger  from  fire  could  be 
greatly  lessened,  the  rate  of  insurance,  which  is  an  import¬ 
ant  matter  in  expensive  non-fireproof  buildings,  would  on 
the  structure  be  reduced  to  a  small  figure,  and  the  rate  on 
the  stock  which  it  might  contain  would  also  be  favorably 
effected 

/  a^o  x/X'Im-cH  crs  0-1  <l  i 

/j'***'  ■fen-V't.-  <v -jk-  j« 

I  jL<->  *4  tk  /v* 

^  i.  <  oO.-  A  >r- 

Io  <►_  cf>-aA-«^w  c*-<— "  (q  KL 


<X-C>C«v-.  ^  CUsU^ 


& 


(?)  2^  lA^viuj 

'  a<ii.<,\vc  VX-Avj  4 

i  e^4^k  jCt-vw  1'  v^JuCi  -  t^CUU. 

|  Xw^C^,  V-jA  r 

4^1^  t  6-  "^HTr H-VA^o  “YOtA^  ^ 

rw.  4c  rfuL  ^ 

u^uiy  c^^vvw^  ^  ^wiT  ' 


U  t^U.  y-(UT  HvU<  w  ► 

.  Wm.  Jrtvw  „  iUW 


64 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


CHAPTER  III. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS;  ENAMEL- 

LING  BRICKS  AND  TILES;  GLAZING  EARTHENWARE, 

ETC. 

Section  I.  General  Remarks  concerning  Bricks,  their 

SIZES,  STRENGTH,  AND  OTHER  QUALITIES. 

Bricks  are  commonly  rectangular  moulded  blocks  of  clay, 
burned,  and  used  for  purposes  of  architectural  and  engineer¬ 
ing  construction ;  but  the  term  is  also  applied  to  the  mould¬ 
ed  clay  in  its  crude  and  unburned  condition,  in  which  state 
the  bricks  are  said  to  be  “  green.” 

Adobes  are  bricks  that  have  been  dried  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun  and  not  burned  with  fire,  and  they  are  used  mostly  in 
countries  of  the  east  and  south  that  are  free  from  frost,  in 
which  the  atmosphere  is  dry  and  warm. 

An  adobe  may  be  reduced  to  a  state  of  permanent  plas¬ 
ticity  by  being  kept  mixed  with  water,  and  again  become 
clay ;  but  a  brick  which  has  been  burned  can  never  be  again 
converted  into  that  condition  or  substance. 

A  burned  brick  may  be  pulverized  into  a  powder,  in 
which  condition  it  will  be  a  cement,  and  when  mixed  with 
a  small  quantity  of  water  will  harden  into  a  mass,  or  when 
mixed  with  a  large  quantity,  it  not  being  hydraulic,  will 
settle  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  and  form  into  a  substance 
resembling  sand. 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


65 


American  building  bricks  vary  in  size  in  different  locali¬ 
ties,  and  often  there  is  a  diversity  in  the  same  location,  the 
measurements  for  common  bricks  running  from  7J  to  9J 
inches  in  length,  3J  to  4J  in  width,  and  from  2  to  2J  in 
thickness,  which  variation  is  largely  owing  to  the  nature  of 
the  clay  employed.  Strong  clays  absorb  a  large  quantity  of 
water  in  tempering,  and  as  the  bricks  made  from  this  class 
of  clays  dry,  they  become  much  smaller,  and  when  placed 
in  the  kiln  and  burned,  their  size  is  again  greatly  reduced 
by  the  action  of  heat,  and  bricks  made  from  this  kind  of 
clay  that  were  of  a  large  size  when  moulded  are  often  small 
and  undersized  when  they  come  from  the  kiln.  When  this 
is  so  the  strength  of  the  bricks  is  not  impaired,  the  princi¬ 
pal  objection  to  their  use  being  that  a  larger  number  is 
required.  Bricks  made  from  weak  clays  absorb  but  little 
water  in  tempering,  and  do  not  shrink  much  in  either  dry¬ 
ing  or  burning.  Both  hand-made  and  machine-made  bricks 
are  similarly  affected  in  size  from  these  causes. 

A  difference  in  the  thickness  of  hand-made  bricks  is  often 
caused  by  the  wearing  of  the  moulds,  new  moulds  being 
generally  used  in  the  spring,  which  gradually  wear  thinner 
until  in  the  autumn  they  have  lost  from  one-eighth  to  three- 
sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  depth,  and  bricks  made  in  the  fall 
of  the  year  being  correspondingly  thinner  than  those  made 
in  the  spring.  The  loss  of  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  the 
thickness  of  a  brick  may  appear  to  be  a  very  small  affair ; 
but  it  is  not  so  insignificant  as  it  may  at  first  sight  seem. 

To  lose  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  one  course  of  bricks,  in 
its  thickness,  is  to  lose  one  inch  in  height  in  every  eight 
S 


66 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


courses,  or  one  foot  in  every  twenty  feet  of  elevation.  In  a 
medium-sized  house,  say  25  feet  front  by  60  feet  deep,  and  60 
feet  in  height  from  foundation  to  finish,  the  walls  being  one 
brick  and  one-half  in  thickness,  which,  with  chimneys  and 
inside  walls,  would  girt  about  200  lineal  feet,  the  loss  would 
be  about  600  cubic  feet  of  brickwork,  or  over  10,000  bricks, 
as  the  walls  would  in  that  case  require  18  bricks  to  the  cubic 
foot. 

The  loss  would  also  be  in  laying  that  quantity  of  extra 
bricks,  and  as  the  bricks  and  laying  would  cost  in  the  neigh¬ 
borhood  of,  say  $15  per  thousand,  a  needless  loss  of  about 
$150  would  be  inflicted  either  upon  the  owner  or  the 
builder,  which  would  depend  upon  the  circumstances  gov¬ 
erning  the  case. 

This  fact  should  be  remembered,  and  engineers  and  archi¬ 
tects  having  in  charge  large  undertakings,  requiring  a  long 
period  for  completion,  and  great  quantities  of  bricks,  should 
expressly  require  that  all  moulds  that  are  subject  to  friction 
and  liable  to  loss  of  depth,  whether  they  be  hand  moulds, 
or  machine  moulds,  shall  be  renewed  not  less  than  three  times 
in  each  season.  This  should  be  done  for  the  protection  of 
their  clients,  if  they  should  be  furnishing  the  bricks,  and  if 
not,  then  for  the  good  of  the  contractor ;  and  also  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  the  courses  level  and  uniform  throughout 
the  work. 

In  the  District  of  Columbia  the  authorities  still  enforce  the 
ordinance  of  October  31,  1820,  which  requires  that  all  moulds 
used  for  making  plain  bricks  within  the  city  of  Washington 
shall  be  “  stamped  as  correct  by  the  sealer  of  weights  and 
measures,  and  be  9J  by  4|,  and  2_J  inches  in  the  clear. 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


67 


Stock  bricks  are  to  be  made  in  moulds  2f  deep  in  the  clear.” 
All  persons  who  violate  this  law  are  subject  to  a  fine  of  $25. 

English  bricks  are  larger  than  those  commonly  made  in 
.this  country,  being  usually  9  inches  long,  4|  wide,  and 
thick,  after  burning,  but  they  are  not  so  strong,  and  are 
generally  of  an  inferior  quality. 

In  fact,  those  made  by  the  London  brick-makers  are  of  the 
weakest  sort,  caused  partly  by  the  nature  of  the  clay  used, 
but  principally  from  the  habit  of  mixing  ashes  in  large  quan¬ 
tities  with  the  clay ;  as  the  domestic  ashes  which  they  use 
contain  a  large  quantity  of  unburned  coal,  which  is  reduced 
to  ashes  in  the  process  of  firing,  leaving  the  brick  very 
porous,  greatly  weakened,  and  generally  shaky.  This  sys¬ 
tem  is  very  undesirable,  for  two  reasons ;  first,  it  is  certainly 
injurious  to  the  health  of  those  who  live  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  stacks,  as  refuse,  frequently  mixed  with  decomposed 
animal  and  vegetable  matter,  the  contents  of  dust  holes,  is 
used  in  the  process  of  burning ;  second,  the  matter  of  this  kind 
which  is  sifted  and  mixed  with  the  clay,  pieces  of  bone  and 
other  substances  of  a  similarly  objectionable  character,  not 
being  infrequent,  is  certain  to  yield  an  undesirable  excrescence 
arising  from  nitrogenous  substances,  some  of  the  evil  effects 
of  which  have  been  described  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

The  most  nauseating  fumes  often  arise  from  the  stacks  of 
bricks  made  and  burned  in  this  manner,  as  the  “  soil”  or 
finely  sifted  ashes  used  for  mixing  with  the  clay  is  offensive 
to  the  smell  in  either  a  dry  or  moist  condition;  the  coarser 
material  or  44  breeze”  contains  some  coal,  but  also  a  large 
quantity  of  rags,  bones,  oyster-shell,  hair,  corks,  etc.,  all  of 


68 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


which  tend  to  make  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  one  of 
these  clamps  anything  but  a  desirable  place  for  a  residence, 
especially  in  the  hot  close  months  of  midsummer,  which  is 
the  period  during  which  the  greater  amount  of  this  kind  of 
brick  burning  is  done.  Day  and  night,  for  weeks  and 
months,  a  great  many  people  are  compelled  to  breathe  these 
sickening  smells  from  this  source,  children  pine  away  and 
die,  the  vitality  of  a  great  number  of  older  persons  is  sapped 
away  in  the  vicinity  of  these  London  clamps,  and  the  Eng¬ 
lish  people,  who  never  let  an  opportunity  pass  to  find  fault 
with  our  hygienic  systems,  and  set  themselves  up  for  models 
for  us  to  copy,  and,  in  fact,  they  as  much  as  say :  “  Look  at 
us,  follow  us:  we  take  good  care  of  the  body,  we  suffer 
nothing  of  a  public  character  to  undermine  our  health,  while 
you  do  everything  with  such  a  rush  that  you  do  not  take  the 
time  to  pay  any  attention  to  the  laws  of  health,  and  proper 
care  of  your  bodies  !” 

Outside  of  the  heart  or  thickly-settled  portions  of  London, 
I  do  not  believe  that  there  is  any  one  thing  that  is  doing  so 
much  harm  by  poisoning  or  polluting  the  atmosphere  as  this 
extensive  system  of  clamp  burning. 

Suits  to  suppress  this  nuisance  are  sometimes  brought,  in 
fact,  are  not  uncommon ;  but  those  who  institute  such  pro¬ 
ceedings  generally  .push  them  with  so  little  vigor,  and  do 
not  appear  to  have  made  any  organized  effort  through  the 
co-operation  and  help  of  their  neighbors  to  suppress  the  sys¬ 
tem,  that  the  courts  do  not  seem  to  have  had  the  cases  at 
any  time  properly  presented  to  them,  and  the  defendant 
generally  escapes  by  the  payment  of  a  most  insignificant 
fine. 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


69 


The  habit  of  some  of  the  brick-makers  at  Haverstraw, 
Croton  Landing,  and  other  places  pn  the  Hudson  River,  of 
mixing  fine  coal  with  the  clay,  has  the  same  effect  of  weak¬ 
ening  the  bricks;  and  what  little  they  gain  in  the  time  of 
burning  is  most  dearly  paid  for  in  the  greatly  inferior  quality 
of  the  stock. 

The  practice  cannot  be  too  severely  condemned ;  clay  is 
the  only  material  of  which  bricks  should  be  made ;  ashes  or 
fine  coal  has  no  business  to  be  mixed  with  it  any  more  than 
fine  wood,  or  any  other  combustible  and  weakening  sub¬ 
stance.  The  proper  place  to  put  that  kind  of  material  is  in 
the  arches  of  the  kiln  while  the  bricks  are  burning. 

Pressed  or  front  bricks  are  generally  hand-made  bricks 
that  have  been  pressed  when  nearly  dry  in  a  hand  press, 
and  in  their  crude  or  green  condition ;  they  are  called 
“  gluts,”  and  it  is  very  essential  that  the  clay  of  which  they 
are  made  should  be  carefully  selected  and  tempered.  It 
should  be  free  from  gravel  and  other  defective  substances. 

Machine-made  bricks  are  sometimes  re-pressed  in  a  hand- 
press  whilst  damp,  and  make  a  second  quality  of  pressed  or 
front  bricks,  and  generally  sell  for  about  one-half  the  price 
of  the  finer  grades.  Pressed  bricks  are  usually  slightly 
larger  than  common  bricks,  being  generally  made  of  weak 
clay,  in  order  to  give  them  a  rich  color ;  but  the  same  causes 
that  have  been  named  above,  as  changing  the  size  of  com¬ 
mon  bricks,  apply  to  this  finer  grade  of  bricks. 

Great  pains  are  taken  with  pressed  bricks  to  preserve  the 
comers  and  edges,  which  are  called  the  “  arrises,”  and  the 
bricks  are  carefully  taken  from  the  kiln,  the  defective  ones 


70 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


being  culled  out,  and  the  perfect  ones  assorted  for  a  unifor¬ 
mity  of  color,  the  light-colored  being  hacked  together,  and 
the  medium  and  dark-colored  being  also  kept  separate,  all 
the  culling,  assorting,  and  hacking  being  usually  done  under 
a  shed  built  for  that  purpose. 

Machine-made  bricks  shrink  less  in  drying,  but  more  in 
burning,  than  hand-made  bricks. 

Burned  common  bricks  are  usually  divided  into  three 
classes:  arch,  red,  and  salmon;  and  when  made  from  the 
same  class  of  clay,  the  salmon  bricks  are  the  largest  in  size 
and  greatest  in  weight ;  the  red  bricks  are  next,  and  the  arch 
bricks  are  the  smallest  in  size  and  least  in  weight.  The 
average  weight  of  burned  bricks  is  about  5  pounds ;  but  in¬ 
dividual  weight  depends  upon  and  varies  with  the  size,  the 
amount  of  pressure  to  which  the  clay  is  subjected  in  tem¬ 
pering  and  moulding,  the  heat  received  in  burning,  the  class, 
whether  red,  arch,  or  salmon,  the  kind,  whether  made  by  a 
dry-clay  machine,  a  slush-machine,  a  damp-clay  machine,  or 
hand-made.  The  average  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  brick 
is  110  pounds. 

Tredgold  gives  the  average  specific  gravity  of  brick  as 
18.41,  and  the  cohesive  force  of  a  square  inch  as  275  pounds. 
He  probably  got  hold  of  a  very  weak  brick,  for  when  the 
cohesive  force  is  less  than  400  pounds,  the  brick  is  not 
worth  laying  in  any  building  where  strength  is  a  requisite. 

A  good  quality  of  hard-burned  bricks,  especially  when 
intended  to  be  used  in  buildings  of  a  public  character, 
whether  hand-made  or  machine-made,  should  withstand  a 
pressure  of  not  less  than  7000  pounds  to  the  square  inch, 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


71 


or  about  450  tons  to  the  square  foot,  which  is  more  than 
good  granite,  and  three  times  as  much  as  good  building 
stone  will  stand. 

This  may  seem  to  be  an  extraordinary  requirement,  or  it 
may  be  called  an  impossibility  by  some ;  but  that  it  is  not 
difficult  to  find  bricks  that  will  stand  even  this  enormous 
pressure,  and  some  a  great  deal  more,  will  appear  from  the 
following  tests  made  by  direction  of  General  M.  C.  Meigs, 
of  the  U.  S.  Army,  who  has  been  intrusted  by  Congress 
with  the  erection  of  a  building  for  the  use  of  the  U.  S.  Pen¬ 
sion  Office,  and  which  is  now  (1884)  in  course  of  construc¬ 
tion  at  Washington,  D.  C.  The  tests  were  made  at  the  U.  S. 
Arsenal,  Watertown,  Mass.,  from  samples  of  bricks  supplied 
by  the  competing  bidders  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  the 
neighboring  city  of  Baltimore,  Md.,  by  compression  between 
cast-iron  platforms,  after  the  faces  of  the  samples  had  been 
ground  flat. 

Below  is  given  the  pressure  required  to  crush ;  the  samples, 
for  convenience  being  numbered  from  1  to  12. 

Ultimate  Strength. 


Total  pounds  Pressure. 

Pressure  per  square  inch. 

No,  1.  Red  brick  .  . 

324,500 

9,540 

“  2.  Arch  brick 

255,200 

7,600 

“  3.  Pressed  brick 

231,000 

6,470 

“  4.  Red  brick 

296,200 

8,530 

“  5.  Arch  brick 

324,500 

10,290 

“  6.  Pressed  brick 

314,700 

9,190 

“  7.  Red  brick 

211,000 

6,050 

“  8.  Red  brick 

209,300 

6,030 

“  9.  Red  brick 

232,000 

6,700 

“  10.  Arch  brick 

203,700 

6,800 

“  11.  Pressed  brick 

210,000 

5,960 

“  12.  Pressed  brick 

249,000 

6,750 

72 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


For  ordinary  building  purposes  there  is  not  the  least  doubt 
but  that  any  of  the  bricks  in  the  above  list  are  more  than 
amply  strong ;  but  for  large  and  important  government 
buildings,  that  are  intended  to  go  down  to  the  coming  cen¬ 
turies,  there  are  some  that  it  would  not  be  good  policy  to 
use. 

The  contract  was  awarded  for  9,000,000  common  bricks, 
and  600,000  pressed  bricks  to  the  owners  of  samples  Nos.  4, 
5,  and  6,  which  was  a  Washington  Co.,  that  manufacture 
with  damp-clay  machines.  The  following  table  will  show 
the  manner  in  which  the  bricks  that  were  submitted  as  sam¬ 
ples  for  the  above  tests  were  produced,  and  the  class  of  clays 
of  which  they  were  made. 


How  produced,  class  of  machines 

used  in  making,  etc.  Condition  of  clay  when  moulded. 

Kind  of  clay. 

No.  1. 

Hand-made. 

Tempered. 

A  mixture  of  strong 

U 

2. 

Dry-clay  machine. 

Dried. 

and  weak. 

Strong. 

i( 

3. 

Hand-made  “  glut,” 

Tempered. 

A  mixture  of  weak 

u 

4. 

pressed  in  a  hand-press. 
Damp-clay  machine. 

Damp. 

and  strong. 
Strong. 

« 

5. 

U  U 

tc 

U 

u 

6. 

u  u 

Wet. 

it 

a 

7. 

repressed  in  a  hand-press. 
Dry-clay  machine. 

Dried. 

Weak  and  sandy. 

u 

8. 

u  u 

U 

U 

a 

9. 

u  u 

u 

it 

u 

10. 

u  u 

u 

u 

u 

11. 

Dry-clay  machine  re¬ 

Dampened. 

u 

a 

12. 

pressed  in  a  hand- 
press. 

Same  as  sample  No.  3. 

REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC.  73 

In  the  above  table  where  there  is  a  mixture  of  clavs,  the 
one  first  named  is  the  predominating  one.  It  is  useless  for 
me  to  give  other  tests  that  have  been  made  either  in  this 
country  or  in  Europe,  for  no  bricks  have  ever  before  made 
so  good  a  showing;  but  that  is  no  reason  why  they  should 
not.  Advancement  is  necessary  in  the  strength  of  bricks 
made  for  the  New  York  and  London  markets,  as  there  has 
been  a  great  decline  in  this  regard  for  some  years  past. 

Clays  that  will  make  good  hand-made  bricks  will  always 
make  equally  as  good  stock,  if  not  better,  when  tempered 
into  pug  and  moulded  by  machinery.  When  it  is  intended 
to  mould  the  clay  into  bricks  without  being  tempered,  by 
what  are  termed  dry-clay  machines,  great  caution  and  dis¬ 
cretion  should  be  used  both  in  selecting  a  machine  and  also 
in  making  the  stock. 

There  is  no  such  thing  as  dry  clay,  for  when  all  the  water, 
mechanical  and  chemical,  has  been  driven  out  of  clay,  by  any 
means,  the  substance  is  not  clay  but  something  else.  The 
machines  which  are  termed  dry-clay  machines  seldom  if  ever 
make  satisfactory  bricks.  The  difference  between  dry-clay 
machines  and  damp-clay  machines  is  that  the  first  uses  clay 
that  has  been  dried  by  the  sun  or  wind,  and  the  other  works 
it  in  its  moist  condition,  as  it  comes  from  the  bank.  The 
latter  is  preferable  for  all  reasons,  the  nearer  clay  approaches 
a  plastic  condition  when  moulded  into  bricks  the  better  will 
be  the  stock  produced,  for  .when  the  clay  is  dried  before 
being  moulded,  it  is  impossible  to  produce  a  strong  brick, 
the  particles  of  clay  will  not  agglutinate  under  pressure,  and 
in  the  kiln  the  heat  will  pass  through  the  brick,  and  not  be 


74 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


so  effective  as  in  a  damper  and  denser  made  brick.  It  will 
require  25  per  cent,  more  fuel  and  longer  time  to  burn  the 
dried  clay  brick  than  the  one  made  with  damp  clay.  This  is  a 
fact  that  is  well  known  to  manufacturers  of  hand-made  bricks, 
only  in  a  different  form,  They  are  only  too  fully  aware  that 
bricks  made  in  the  summer,  and  carried  unburned  in  the 
sheds  through  the  autumn  and  winter,  will  be  much  drier  in 
the  spring;  but  will  require  a  greater  quantity  of  fuel  than 
if  they  had  been  burned  within  a  few  weeks  after  making. 

For  all  machines  that  are  intended  to  make  bricks  without 
tempering,  the  clay  should  be  taken  directly  from  the  bank 
finely  pulverized  and  fed  to  the  moulds  in  as  moist  and  natu¬ 
ral  a  condition  as  it  is  possible  to  work  it.  All  bricks  made 
by  this  class  of  machines  will  have  small  cracks  on  the  faces 
caused  by  the  outer  surfaces  drying  quickly,  and  also  from 
the  air  contained  in  the  clay  expanding  during  burning. 

This  is  not  a  great  drawback  to  the  strength  of  the  bricks 
for  building  purposes,  unless  the  cracks  are  large  and  ex¬ 
tend  into  the  body.  When  it  is  intended  to  use  bricks  made 
by  any  of  this  class  of  machines  for  sewers,  culverts,  tunnels, 
wells,  or  other  places  where  there  is  an  unusual  amount  of 
dampness,  only  those  that  have  been  thoroughly  burned 
should  be  allowed,  under  any  circumstances,  to  go  into  the 
work. 

For  aqueducts,  reservoirs,  pavements,  and  all  of  the  above 
class  of  work,  it  is  much  better  to  use  hard-burned  hand¬ 
made,  or  tempered  clay  machine-made  bricks,  when  it  is 
possible  to  obtain  them. 

All  tempered  clay  bricks  are  denser  or  closer  in  the  in- 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC.  75 

terior  than  on  the  outer  surface,  while  hricks  made  from  dry 
clays  are  just  the  reverse.  In  the  latter  process  a  slight 
moisture  is  developed  on  the  surface  under  pressure  which 
forms  a  smooth,  thin  veneering  on  the  faces  of  the  bricks; 
and  when  this  wears  away  the  remainder  of  the  brick  soon 
disintegrates  under  the  influence  of  dampness,  acids,  and 
gases. 

Section  II.  Enamelling  and  Glazing  Bricks  and  Tiles 

HAVING  PLAIN  AND  UNEVEN  SURFACES,  EARTHENWARE,  ETC. 

For  damp  and  exposed  walls  of  buildings,  bricks  have 
sometimes  been  glazed  or  rendered  water  proof  by  a  compo¬ 
sition  which  gives  them  a  vitreous  surface,  and  this  is  done 
by  treating  the  faces  with  a  flux  which  meets  the  silex  of  the 
brick;  or  it  may  be  applied  in  solution,  the  liquid  being 

afterward  expelled  by  heat. 

\ 

Besinous  compounds  have  also  been  used  to  render  the 
surface  non-absorbent,  and  bricks  have  also  been  treated 
with  soluble  silicate  of  soda,  which  has  been  decomposed, 
leaving  the  insoluble  silex  in  the  pores  of  the  brick.  Cheap 
pigments  may  be  added  to  the  glazing  compounds  which 
will  give  an  ornamental  appearance  at  a  moderate  cost. 

In  some  cases,  when  the  bricks  are  to  be  employed  for 
sanitary  purposes,  a  glass  enamel  is  used,  composed  of  130 
parts  of  flint-glass  powdered,  20  J  parts  of  carbonate  of  soda, 
and  12  parts  of  boracic  acid;  the  surface  of  the  brick  being 
first  washed  with  water  containing  a  small  amount  of  glue, 
the  preparation  then  applied  in  solution  and  fluxed  in  an 


oven. 


76  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

Ornamental  bricks  are  now  made  in  many  designs  and  of 
a  great  variety  of  colors,  which  are  usually  produced  by  the 
employment  of  metallic  oxides  and,  sometimes,  ochreous 
metallic  earths,  oxides  of  lead,  platinum,  chromium,  and  ura¬ 
nium  are  used  for  very  fine  colors,  and  the  work  is  done  not 
in  actual  colors  but  in  materials  which  will  assume  certain 
colors  under  the  action  of  fire.  Porcelain  and  glass  enamel¬ 
ling  are  also  often  used  for  bricks  that  are  largely  employed 
for  internal  as  well  as  external  decorative  building. 

The  facility  with  which  colors  might  be  introduced  into 
vitreous  compounds  or  applied  to  them,  and  become  fixed 
by  subsequent  fusion  or  baking,  made  the  practice  in  early 
times  exceedingly  popular,  and  even  in  the  middle  ages  it 
attained  a  higher  rank  than  it  now  holds  as  one  of  the  fine 
arts. 

The  colors  now  mostly  used  for  architectural  decorations 
in  chromatic  brick-work  are  the  same,  with  the  exception  of 
buff  and  brown,  as  those  employed  by  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
viz:  red,  yellow,  blue,  sometimes  green,  and  white  and 
black,  the  modern  colors  being  produced  by  the  employment 
of  the  following  oxides  of  the  metals  named. 

Bed :  Iron,  iron  sulphate,  copper  (oxidule),  ochre. 

Yellow :  Antimony,  with  potash  or  sulphide,  titanium, 
chromate  of  lead,  chromate  of  barytes.  Zinc  brightens 
yellow. 

Buff:  The  same  ingredients  as  for  yellow  with  the  addi¬ 
tion  of  iron,  sepia,  sienna,  ochre,  umber,  earths. 

Blue:  Cobalt,  carbonate  of  cobalt,  smalt  or  silicate  of 
cobalt.  Zinc  brightens  blue. 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


77 


Green :  Copper,  with  or  without  antimony,  chrome  with 
cobalt. 

White :  White  clay  with  finely  powdered  soap-stone  and 
5  per  cent,  tin  oxide. 

Black :  Iron,  manganese,  uranium,  iridium. 

Brown :  iron,  chromate  of  iron,  manganese,  with  or  with¬ 
out  cobalt,  ochre,  and  hammer  cinder. 

For  encaustic  colors  the  coloring  oxides  are  introduced  in 
quantities  usually  of  5  to  10  per  cent.  They  act  as  fluxes, 
and  the  composition  of  the  body  must  be  altered  in  some 
cases  to  counteract  this. 

To  color  under  the  glaze,  the  burned  brick  is  dipped  into 
a  slip  of  colored  clay,  formed  usually  of  one  part  colored 
glass,  ground,  and  two  parts  of  clay;  the  latter  causing  the 
adhesion  of  the  slip,  and  the  brick  is  either  then  fired,  or 
after  being  allowed  to  dry,  it  is  coated  with  a  transparent 
glaze  and  then  fired ;  but  the  brick  should  be  heated  before 
applying  the  glaze,  in  order  that  all  oily  substances  may  be 
removed. 

When  the  colors  are  in  the  glaze,  the  brick  is  dipped  in 
a  transparent  colored  glaze  usually  formed,  besides  the  color¬ 
ing  oxides  of : — 

Oxide  of  lead . from  40  to  50  per  cent. 

Silicious  sand . “  30  to  40  “ 

Salt . “  0  to  12 

All  enamels  and  glazes  for  ornamental  bricks  are  usually 
applied  to  the  one  face  or  head  which  will  be  exposed  after 
laying  in  the  wall,  except  those  intended  to  be  used  for  cor¬ 
ners  and  reveals  of  window  and  door-jambs,  which  have  one 


78 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


face  and  head  treated,  and  are  termed  “  rights”  and  “  lefts” 
when  they  are  so  moulded  or  ornamented  that  they  cannot 
be  used  for  any  corner. 

In  addition  to  the  colors  which  have  been  given  for 
highly  ornamental  bricks  there  are  others  that  it  might  be 
desirable  to  employ,  especially  for  interior  and  expensive 
decorative  purposes ;  they  are  turquoise,  bronze  green,  olive 
green,  violet,  purple,  orange,  carmine,  pink,  gray,  and  indigo. 

Turquoise :  Copper  with  soda ;  cobalt  with  zinc  and  soda 
phosphate. 

Bronze  Green :  Nickel,  zinc,  and  its  carbonates  will 
brighten  all  greens. 

Olive  Green :  Nickel  with  cobalt. 

Violet :  Iron,  manganese  with  soda. 

Purple :  Chloride  of  gold  with  tin  chloride  of  silver. 

Orange  :  Uranium  ;  sulphide  of  antimony  with  iron. 

Carmine:  Chloride  of  silver. 

Pink  :  Iron  and  chromate  with  potash. 

Gray :  Iron,  cobalt,  iridium,  platinum,  titanium. 

Indigo  :  Compound  of  violet  and  blue. 

Mr.  Decius  W.  Clark,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  claims  to 
have  discovered  a  true  enamel,  suitable  for  building  brick 
and  other  articles  produced  from  clay,  and  also  for  iron  and 
other  metallic  articles,  which  enamel  is  capable  of  a  great 
variety  of  colors,  able  to  resist  heat,  cold,  or  moisture,  and 
any  tendency  to  oxidization  or  decay. 

When  it  is  desired  to  produce  by  Mr.  Clark’s  process  an 
enamel  of  a  white  color,  use  eighty  parts,  by  weight,  of  feld¬ 
spar;  seventy  parts  of  flint  or  quartz;  sixty-five  parts  of 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


79 


paris-white ;  fifty  parts  of  oxide  of  zinc ;  fifty  parts  of  boracic 
acid ;  twelve  parts  of  kaolin  or  china-clay,  or  their  chemical 
equivalents. 

For  the  various  colors  enumerated  below,  use — 

For  black,  eighty-five  parts,  by  weight,  of  feldspar ;  sev¬ 
enty  parts  of  flint  or  quartz ;  sixty-five  parts  of  paris-white ; 
fifty  parts  of  oxide  of  zinc ;  fifty-four  parts  of  boracic  acid ; 
twelve  parts  of  kaolin  or  china-clay;  two  parts  of  black 
oxide  of  manganese ;  one  part  of  black  oxide  of  cobalt. 

For  blue,  eighty  parts,  by  weight,  of  feldspar;  seventy 
parts  of  flint  or  quartz;  sixty-five  parts  of  paris-white;  fifty- 
two  parts  of  boracic  acid ;  fifty  parts  of  oxide  of  zinc  ; 
twelve  parts  of  kaolin  or  china-clay;  two  parts  of  black 
oxide  of  cobalt. 

For  yellow,  eighty  parts,  by  weight,  of  feldspar ;  seventy 
parts  of  flint  or  quartz;  sixty-five  parts  of  paris-white;  fifty- 
two  parts  of  boracic  acid ;  fifty  parts  of  oxide  of  zinc ;  twelve 
parts  of  kaolin  or  china-clay ;  two  parts  of  oxide  of  uranium. 

For  drab,  eighty  parts,  by  weight,  of  feldspar ;  seventy 
parts  of  flint  or  quartz ;  sixty-five  parts  of  paris-white ;  fifty- 
five  parts  of  boracic  acid  ;  fifty  parts  of  oxide  of  zinc  ; 
twelve  parts  of  kaolin  or  china-clay ;  six  parts  of  Brandon 
mineral  paint ;  one  part  of  potters’  blue. 

For  green,  eighty  parts,  by  weight,  of  feldspar ;  seventy 
parts  of  flint  or  quartz ;  sixty-five  parts  of  paris-white ;  fifty- 
two  and  one-half  parts  of  boracic  acid ;  fifty  parts  of  oxide 
of  zinc;  sixteen  parts  of  kaolin  or  china-clay;  two  and  one- 
half  parts  of  oxide  of  copper. 

For  red,  eighty  parts,  by  weight,  of  feldspar ;  seventy 
parts  of  flint  or  quartz;  sixty-five  parts  of  paris-white;  fifty 


80 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


two  and  one-half  parts  of  boracic  acid ;  fifty  parts  of  oxide 
of  zinc ;  eight  parts  of  kaolin  or  china-clay ;  four  parts  of 
lime ;  two  and  one-half  parts  of  suboxide  of  copper. 

For  brownstone,  red  sandstone,  and  various  other  colors, 
variable  proportions  of  these  several  mixtures  may  be  used, 
as  desired,  and  the  ingredients  may  also  be  varied. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  various  proportions  of  the 
different  ingredients  may  be  slightly  changed,  as  experience 
may  dictate,  in  consequence  of  the  variety  in  the  constituent 
parts  of  various  clays,  some  clays  having  more  oxide  of  iron 
and  more  lime  than  other  clays. 

The  method  of  using  these  various  elements  to  produce 
the  desired  results  is  to  combine  all  the  several  ingredients 
for  any  special  color  together  in  a  crucible  or  retort  and  cal¬ 
cine  them  together,  not  separately,  if  the  best  results  are 
desired.  Then  reduce  the  mass,  in  a  mill  or  under  the  mul- 
ler  or  pestle,  with  water  to  about  the  consistency  of  cream, 
or  to  such  a  degree  as  to  be  easily  and  smoothly  spread  over 
the  surface  to  be  treated.  The  articles  are  then  coated, 
either  by  brushes  or  immersion,  placed  four  in  each  sagger, 
and  then  raised  to  a  sufficient  temperature  in  a  glazing  kiln 
to  fuse  the  enamelling  compound. 

Another  improvement  by  Mr.  Clark  relates  to  a  building- 
brick  having  an  enamelled  surface  or  surfaces  of  any  desired 
color. 

In  preparing  this  enamelling  compound — take  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  parts  of  fluor-spar,  about  sixty  parts  of 
paris-white,  about  fifty  parts  of  lime,  about  fifty  parts  of 
oxide  of  tin  or  its  equivalent,  and  about  fifty  parts  of  kaolin. 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


81 


These  ingredients  pulverize  and  triturate  to  an  impalpable 
powder,  reducing  the  whole  to  a  homogeneous  mass,  which 
place  in  a  crucible  or  other  suitable  vessel  and  calcine. 
After  this  calcined  mass  is  cooled  off  it  is  again  reduced  to 
a  powder  by  the  pulverizing  process.  Sufficient  water  is 
then  added,  and  the  whole  triturated,  so  that  it  will  form 
an  enamelling  compound  of  about  the  consistency  of  cream. 
In  this  compound  immerse  that  portion  of  the  brick  desired 
to  be  enamelled,  and  then  subject  it  to  a  sufficient  tempera¬ 
ture  to  fuse  the  enamelling  material  on  its  surface. 

When  it  is  desired  to  make  a  brick  having  a  black  enam¬ 
elled  surface,  add  the  black  oxide  of  cobalt,  black  oxide  of 
manganese,  and  umber  to  the  hereinbefore-named  ingre¬ 
dients  prior  to  the  pulverizing  and  calcining  process.  For 
a  blue  enamelled  surface,  the  black  oxide  of  cobalt  is  used 
in  like  manner.  For  a  green  enamelled  surface,  suboxide 
of  copper  is  used.  For  a  red  enamelled  surface,  suboxide 

of  copper  and  red  oxide  of  iron  are  used.  For  drab  enam- 

« 

elled  surface,  mineral  paint  known  as  the  “  Brandon  mineral 
paint,”  manufactured  at  Brandon,  in  the  State  of  Vermont. 
For  bronze  marble,  carmine,  and  other  shades  and  tints 
formed  by  a  combination  of  the  above,  the  ingredients  are 
pulverized  and  formed  into  a  homogeneous  mass,  and  a 
suitable  quantity  of  it  is  added  to  the  ingredients  forming 
the  enamelling  compound  to  produce  the  shade  or  tint 
desired. 

With  this  enamelling  compound  the  surface  of  the  ordi¬ 
nary  red  front  brick  may  be  enamelled,  and  any  desired 
shade  or  tint  given  to  the  enamelled  surface — a  result  not 

6 


82 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


successfully  accomplished  prior  to  the  date  of  this  invention. 
The  patentee  is  enabled,  therefore,  to  produce,  at  a  com¬ 
paratively  low  cost,  building  brick  having  an  enamelled  and 
ornamental  surface  which  is  unaffected  by  the  action  of 
heat,  frost,  or  other  atmospheric  conditions. 

The  ordinary  front  brick  employed  is  made  of  any  of 
the  clays  commonly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  such  brick, 
and  burned  in  the  usual  manner. 

The  surface  of  the  brick  to  be  enamelled  should  be 
smooth.  To  this  end  they  should  preferably  be  pressed ; 
but  the  surface  to  be  enamelled  should  be  free  from  sand,  or 
otherwise  the  enamel  will  not  adhere. 

It  being  obvious  that  the  enamelled  brick  will  only  be  used 
for  forming  fronts  and  other  parts  of  the  building  requiring 
a  fine  finish  and  ornamentation,  brick  having  a  rough  uneven 
surface,  or  porous,  will  not  answer,  for  the  enamelled  surface 
will  be  uneven  in  one  case,  and  full  of  small  indentations  in 
the  other. 

Mr.  John  D.  Logan,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  has  invented  a 
process,  the  object  of  which  is  also  to  treat  bricks  or  building- 
blocks  to  solutions  or  coloring-matter  and  glaze,  whereby 
their  value  for  building  purposes  wdl  be  enhanced,  and  a 
structure  be  ornamented  by  allowing  a  choice  of  colors  and 
shades  at  the  will  of  the  builder. 

In  carrying  out  the  invention,  he  employs  the  following 
formula  to  form  the  solution,  which,  for  convenience,  we  will 
designate  the  “white  body,  or  slip:”  blue  clay,  ninety- 
nine  pounds;  china-clay,  three  hundred  and  twenty-one 
pounds;  spar,  three  hundred  and  fifteen  pounds;  flint,  forty- 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


83 


two  pounds;  bone  (calcined  and  ground),  three  hundred  and 
fifty-four  pounds.  These  ingredients  are  mixed  in  a  suffi¬ 
cient  quantity  of  water,  which  will  give  a  consistence  to  the 
solution  that  will  allow  it  to  be  passed  through  a  bolting- 
cloth  of  seventy  meshes  to  the  square  inch,  after  which  the 
solution  is  allowed  to  settle,  and  the  water  poured  off  until 
the  residuum  will  weigh,  approximately,  twenty-four  ounces 
to  the  pint.  The  bricks  are  dipped  or  immersed  in  this  solu¬ 
tion  and  allowed  to  dry,  after  which  they  are  treated  with  a 
glaze  or  enamelling  solution,  and  again  dried.  The  glaze 
solution  is  prepared  as  follows:  spar,  ninety  pounds;  Paris 
white,  eighty  pounds;  china-clay,  twenty  pounds;  borax,  sixty 
pounds;  soda-ash,  sixty  pounds;  flint,  forty  pounds.  These 
mix  and  calcine  in  a^ gloss-kiln.  Of  this  mixture,  take  two 
hundred  pounds ;  spar,  seventy  pounds ;  flint,  forty  pounds  ; 
white  lead,  fifty  pounds.  Grind  together  wet,  and  with 
water  form  a  solution  which  will  pass  through  a  bolting  cloth 
of  eighty  meshes  to  the  square  inch.  After  treating  with 
this  solution,  the  bricks  are  placed  in  saggers' and  set  in  a 
kiln  and  burned  until  the  glaze  flows. 


The  white  body  may  be  changed  to  a  green  slip  by  taking 
two  quarts  of  the  same,  and  adding  thereto  two  ounces  of 
black  oxide  of  copper,  and  one  ounce  of  blue  calx ;  to  a  blue 
slip,  by  taking  four  quarts  of  the  same,  and  adding  four 
ounces  of  blue  calx ;  to  a  drab  slip  by  taking  four  quarts  of 
the  same,  and  adding  two  ounces  of  black  oxide  of  manga¬ 
nese,  and  one  ounce  of  blue  calx.  To  make  a  black  slip, 
take  one  hundred  pounds  of  brick-clay,  and  with  water  form 
a  solution  which  will  pass  through  a  bolting-cloth  of  seventy 

■'v^-UL..  (l  fc  -Ha 

^  C*jLy>  —  ,  CVUL>1  r'  CXJl.  'U  /-■ 


uv-tu 


.xXt  iMX  i  A  jC  v.  Ja  .  *2  'k  v-  ‘ 


84 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


meshes  to  the  square  inch,  then  add  twenty-five  pounds  of 
carbonate  of  iron,  and  thirteen  pounds  of  black  oxide  of 
manganese,  and  reduce  the  whole  to  a  liquid  weighing 
twenty-four  ounces  to  the  pint. 

The  blue  calx,  before  mentioned,  is  formed  as  follows: 
Take  oxide  of  cobalt,  ten  pounds  ;  spar,  thirty  pounds;  oxide 
of  zinc,  four  pounds ;  nitrate  of  soda,  two  and  one-half 
pounds.  Mix  and  calcine  in  a  gloss-kiln,  and  grind  wet  to 
a  solution  of  thirty-two  ounces  to  the  pint. 

Ornamenting  Brides  and  Tiles  of  Uneven  Surface ,  with 
Metallic  or  Vitreous  Colors. 

Mr.  James  C.  Anderson,  of  Chicago,  Ill.,  has  lately  put 
into  operation  an  invention  which  relates  to  the  ornamenta¬ 
tion  of  bricks  and  tiles  of  uneven  surfaces ;  and  it  consists  in 
applying  metallic  or  vitreous  colors  to  them  while  being 
formed  in  the  mould.  It  is  different  from  the  manner  in 
which  plain  surfaces  are  decorated,  and  it  is  accomplished 
by  causing  the  ornament  to  be  imbedded  in  the  face  of 
the  brick  or  tile,  the  same  having  been  previously  printed 
or  stencilled  in  metallic  or  verifiable  colors  on  paper  or 
inflammable  material,  which  is  placed  in  the  mould,  with 
the  ornamental  surface  next  to  the  clay.  The  clay  is 
then  compressed  into  a  brick  or  tile,  the  ornament  be¬ 
coming  imbedded  in  the  clay,  and  the  paper  adhering 
to  the  article  until  consumed  by  the  fires  of  the  kiln  in 
burning  the  brick  or  tile.  In  this  instance,  the  object  is  to 
ornament  in  verifiable  or  metallic  colors  bricks  or  tiles  of 
uneven  surfaces ;  or,  rather,  with  raised  or  depressed  sur¬ 
faces,  and  in  which  such  raised  or  depressed  portions  form 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


85 


ornaments  in  themselves.  As  an  example,  suppose  a  brick 
or  tile  is  to  be  provided  with  a  series  of  concentric  circles  in 
relief,  and  that  it  is  desired  to  beautify  such  circles  with  colors 
different  from  the  body  of  the  brick.  This  may  be  done  by 
making  the  circles  of  different  colors,  or  combining  various 
colors  in  one  circle,  or  by  wreaths  of  flowers,  etc. ;  and  in 
accomplishing  this,  it  is  necessary  to  form  the  desired  design 
or  pattern  in  the  matrix  or  bottom  of  the  mould,  or  in  the 
plunger  or  plungers  which  compress  the  material  into  shape. 
The  same  design  is  then  printed,  stencilled,  or  otherwise 
placed  on  paper  or  other  suitable  material,  in  metallic  or 
other  verifiable  colors,  and  in  such  manner  as  will  produce 
the  most  desirable  effect.  This  pattern  or  print  is  now 
placed  in  the  mould,  with  the  color  next  to  the  clay,  care 
being  exercised  to  have  the  ornaments  on  the  paper  to  match 
with  the  depressions  in  the  mould.  This  can  be  best  accom¬ 
plished  by  cutting  the  paper  the  same  size  as  the  mould, 
and  having  the  designs  on  the  paper  in  the  same  relative 
position  in  regard  to  the  face  of  the  brick  as  the  design  on 
the  matrix  or  plunger,  or,  rather,  have  the  design  on  the 
paper  or  other  material  register  with  the  pattern  in  the 
mould  or  matrix.  Pressure  is  now  applied,  which  forms  the 
brick  or  tile,  and  at  the  same  time  causes  the  coloring  mat¬ 
ter  to  be  imbedded  or  to  adhere  to  the  brick  or  tile,  together 
with  the  paper.  The  article  thus  formed  is  now  subjected 
to  the  fires  of  the  kiln,  and  in ‘this  burning  operation  the 
paper  is  destroyed,  and  the  colors  burned  in  or  permanently 
fixed  to  the  brick  or  tile.  We  have  given  this  illustration 
of  a  brick  with  concentric  circles  in  relief  or  in  depression 


86 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


to  more  readily  explain  and  simplify  the  invention ;  but  it  is 
obvious  that  designs  without  number — geometrical  designs, 
designs  of  birds,  beasts,  reptiles,  flowers,  and  landscapes — 
can  be  produced  in  the  same  manner. 

The  plain  portions  of  the  brick  may  be  collected  or  orna¬ 
mented  in  any  desirable  manner,  and  the  portions  in  relief 
be  of  the  natural  color  of  the  clay.  Metallic  foil,  which  will 
withstand  the  fires  of  the  furnace  may  be  placed  on  the 
brick  in  the  same  manner,  and  with  good  results. 

For  the  better  protection  of  the  ornament,  and  to  prevent 
the  same  from  becoming  injured  in  the  firing,  there  may  be 
formed,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  brick  or  tile  cavities,  for 
the  reception  of  the  designs  in  relief  on  the  opposite  side,  so 

t 

that  by  piling  the  bricks  in  the  kiln  back  to  face,  and  allow¬ 
ing  the  relief  designs  to  be  pocketed  into  these  cavities  the 
ornament  will  be  fully  protected  from  dust  and  smoke,  and 
all  danger  of  mashing,  breaking,  or  injuring  the  relief  design 
obviated. 

Ornamentation  of  Brides,  Tiles ,  and  Building-blocks  having 
Plain  or  Uniform  Surfaces. 

This  process,  which  is  by  the  same  inventor  as  the  one 
above  described  for  ornamenting  clay  bodies  with  uneven 
surfaces,  relates  to  the  ornamentation  of  bricks,  tiles,  build¬ 
ing-blocks,  and  other  bodies  of  clay  having  uniform  or  plain 
surfaces ;  and  it  consists  in  placing  the  ornament  of  what¬ 
ever  kind  between  the  faces  of  the  brick  or  tile  as  they  are 
being  piled  or  set  in  the  kiln  for  burning,  so  that  in  the 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


87 


burning  of  the  articles  the  ornament  will  be  fixed  and 
become  a  part  thereof. 

In  carrying  out  this  invention  the  inventor  spreads  or 
prints  the  coloring  matter,  of  any  desired  color  or  combina¬ 
tion  of  colors,  on  paper  or  other  suitable  material,  which 
will  be  consumed  in  the  firing  and  burning  of  the  brick  or 
tile,  and  leave  the  color  or  ornament  in  place  and  fixed  on 
the  face  of  the  article.  The  bricks  or  tiles,  having  been 
formed  in  the  usual  manner,  are  laid  up  or  set  in  the  kiln 
face  to  face  upon  their  edges,  in  stretching-courses  of  two  or 
three  bricks  high,  with  fire  spaces  between  the  courses,  and 
then  like  heading  or  cross  courses  are  laid,  as  is  usual  in 
setting  fine  pressed  brick  in  the  kilns.  The  ornaments,  of 
whatever  kind,  are  placed  between  the  bricks  and  in  contact 
with  the  face,  sides,  or  edges  to  be  ornamented.  When  the 
kiln  is  properly  filled  the  firing  takes  place  (a  down-draft 
kiln  being  preferred,  such  as  that  shown  in  Chapter  IV., 
Section  VI.)  and  as  the  bricks  are  slightly  softened  by 
the  evaporation  of  the  water  from  the  stock,  or  in  the 
act  of  driving  off  what  we  have  previously  termed  the 
“water-smoke,”  the  bricks  being  set  one  upon  the  other, 
the  combined  weight  of  the  mass  above  is  utilized  in  com¬ 
pressing  the  ornament,  and  the  bricks  will  settle  down  and 
embed  the  ornament  therein.  In  the  process  of  firing,  the 
bricks  or  tiles  pass  through  two  softening  periods — the  one 
just  mentioned,  the  other  when  they  have  reached  a  degree 
of  heat  when  semi-vitrification  and  shrinkage  take  place. 
Before  reaching  the  latter  point  the  paper  or  other  material 
on  which  the  ornament  has  been  placed  is  consumed,  leav- 


88  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

ing  the  ornament  impressed  and  permanently  fixed  on  the 
brick  or  tile. 

Leaves,  plants,  etc.,  can  be  used  to  receive  the  body-color, 
or  the  leaves,  plants,  etc.,  may  be  saturated  or  permeated 
with  the  coloring-matter  in  a  liquid  or  semi-liquid  state,  the 
pores  and  surface  being  filled  or  covered  with  the  desired 
color  to  represent  the  leaf,  plant,  etc.,  when  burned,  as  it  is 
in  a  state  of  nature,  or  in  varied  and  different  colors.  It 
will  be  understood,  however,  that  by  this  process  it  is  possi¬ 
ble  to  inlay  or  ornament  with  gold-leaf,  silver-leaf,  or  with 
any  thin  ornament  or  metallic  colors  not  affected  by  the 
heat,  but  such  as  will  be  fixed  or  vitrified  in  the  burning. 

The  paper  used  on  which  to  print  or  paint  the  design  is 
by  preference  what  is  known  as  “  unsized”  paper ;  hut  it 
is  not  necessary  to  be  confined  to  paper  of  any  kind  or  to 
leaves,  as  it  is  obvious  that  sheets  of  gelatine,  wax,  and  the 
like  may  be  employed  for  this  purpose. 

Nor  is  it  necessary  to  be  confined  to  any  particular  form 
of  ornament,  as  it  is  obvious  that  geometrical  figures  may 
be  so  arranged  that  a  series  of  bricks  or  tiles  of  a  certain 
series  will  form  the  design  when  placed  in  position,  and  that 
ivy-vines  and  other  climbing  plants  may  be  brought  out  with 
good  effect  on  the  wall  or  floor  of  a  building.  Figures, 
letters,  and,  in  fact,  a  vast  variety  of  designs,  can  thus  be 
produced  at  a  comparatively  slight  cost. 

Enamelling  Fine  Wares. 

Two  kinds  of  glazes  are  used  in  Staffordshire,  England, 
for  the  higher  grades  of  pottery. 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


89 


The  following  is  the  composition  of  a  glaze  intended  to 
cover  all  kinds  of  figures  printed  in  metallic  colors :  26  parts 
of  white  feldspar  are  fritted  with  6  parts  of  soda,  2  of  nitre, 
and  1  of  borax ;  to  20  pounds  of  this  frit,  26  parts  of  feld¬ 
spar,  20  of  white  lead,  6  of  ground  flints,  4  of  chalk,  1  of 
oxide  of  tin,  and  a  small  quantity  of  oxide  of  cobalt,  to  de¬ 
stroy  the  brown  cast  and  to  induce  a  faint  azure  tint,  are 
added. 

The  following  may  also  be  used :  frit  together  20  parts  of 
flint-glass,  6  of  flints,  2  of  nitre,  and  1  of  borax;  add  to  12 
parts  of  that  frit  40  parts  of  white-lead,  36  of  feldspar,  8  of 
flints,  and  6  of  flint-glass ;  then  grind  the  whole  together 
into  a  uniform  cream-consistenced  paste. 

As  to  the  ware  which  is  to  be  painted,  it  is  covered  with 
a  glaze  composed  of  13  parts  of  the  printing-color  frit,  to 
which  are  added  50  parts  of  red-lead,  40  of  white-lead,  and 
12  of  flint;  the  whole  having  been  ground  together. 

If  fired  in  saggers,  in  order  that  they  may  not  absorb 
any  of  the  vitrifying  matter,  they  are  themselves  coated 
with  a  glaze  composed  of  13  parts  of  common  salt  and  30 
parts  of  potash,  simply  dissolved  in  water  and  brushed  over 
them. 

In  fine  enamelling,  ground-laying  is  the  first  process ;  in 
operating  on  all  designs  to  which  it  is  applied,  it  requires 
lightness  and  delicacy  of  hand  principally,  and  is  extremely 
simple. 

A  coat  of  boiled  oil  adapted  to  the  purpose  being  laid 
upon  the  ware  with  a  hair  pencil,  and  afterwards  levelled, 
or  as  it  is  termed  technically  “  bossed,”  until  the  surface  is 


90 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


perfectly  uniform ;  as  the  deposit  of  more  oil  on  one  part 
than  on  another  would  cause  a  proportionate  increase  of  color 
to  adhere,  and  consequently  produce  a  deepening  or  variation 
of  the  tint. 

The  “  bossing”  having  been  properly  done,  the  color  in  a 
state  of  fine  powder  is  dusted  on  the  oiled  surface  with  fine 
cotton-waste;  a  sufficient  quantity  very  readily  attaches 
itself,  and  the  superfluity  is  cleared  off  by  the  same  medium. 

If  it  be  requisite  to  preserve  a  panel  ornament,  or  any 
object  of  the  ground  color,  an  additional  process  is  necessary, 
termed  “  stencilling.”  The  stencil,  generally  a  mixture  of 
rose-pink,  sugar,  and  water,  is  laid  on  in  the  form  desired 
with  a  pencil,  so  as  to  entirely  protect  that  portion  of  the 
surface  of  the  ware  or  tile  from  the  oil,  and  the  process  of 
“  grounding,”  as  described  above,  ensues.  It  is  then  dried 
in  an  oven  to  harden  the  color  and  dispel  the  oil,  and  then 
immersed  in  water,  which  penetrates  to  the  stencil,  and,  soft¬ 
ening  the  sugar,  is  then  easily  washed  off,  carrying  with  it 
any  portion  of  color  or  oil  that  may  be  upon  it,  and  leaving 
the  ware  free,  and  perfectly  clean. 

When  great  depth  of  color  is  necessary,  the  colors  aie 
repeated  several  times,  when  only  a  lighter  increase  of  shade 
is  required  they  are  repeated  a  less  number  of  times. 

Bandages  are  generally,  and  should  be  at  times,  worn  over 
the  mouths  of  the  “ground-layers,”  as  the  inhaling  of  the 
color-dust  is  very  injurious. 

“  Bossing”  is  the  term  applied  to  the  process  by  which  the 
level  surfaces  of  the  various  colors,  extensivelv  introduced 
upon  decorated  porcelain,  are  effected ;  tiles  are  sometimes  so 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


91 


treated.  The  “boss”  is  made  of  soft  and  very  pliant 
leather. 

The  process  of  gilding  is  as  follows :  the  gold,  which  is 
prepared  with  quicksilver  and  flux,  when  ready  for  use,  ap¬ 
pears  a  black  dust;  it  is  used  with  turpentine  and  oil,  similar 
to  the  enamel  colors,  and,  like  them,  worked  with  the  ordi¬ 
nary  camel’s-hair  pencil.  It  flows  very  freely,  and  is  equally 
adapted  for  producing  broad  massive  bands  and  grounds, 
or  the  finest  details  of  the  most  elaborate  designs. 

To  avoid  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  drawing  the  pat¬ 
tern  upon  every  piece  of  a  service,  if  it  be  porcelain  ware, 
or  upon  every  tile,  if  of  similar  design,  a  “pounce”  is  used, 
and  the  outline  dusted  through  with  charcoal,  which  secures 
uniformity  of  size  and  shape. 

Firing  restores  the  gold  to  its  proper  tint,  which  first 
assumes  the  character  of  “ dead  gold;”  sometimes  it  is  left 
so ;  the  process  of  making  it  brilliant,  afterwards  applied, 
is  termed  “burnishing.” 

The  glaze-kiln  is  usually  smaller  than  the  biscuit-kiln,  and 
contains  no  more  than  forty  or  forty-five  bungs  or  columns, 
each  composed  of  sixteen  or  seventeen  saggers. 

Those  of  the  first  bung  rest  upon  round  tiles,  and  are 
well  luted  or  held  together  by  a  very  finely  ground  fire-clay 
of  only  moderate  cohesion ;  those  of  the  second  bung  are 
supported  by  an  additional  tile. 

The  lower  saggers  contain  the  cream-colored  articles,  of 
which  the  glaze  is  softer  than  that  applied  to  the  blue 
painted  ware,  this  being  always  so  in  the  tile  and  brick- 
glazing-kilns,  as  well  as  in  porcelain-kilns,  and  the  blue 


92 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


enamelled  ware  is  placed  in  the  intervals  between  the  fur¬ 
naces,  and  in  the  uppermost  saggers  of  the  columns.  The 
bottom  of  the  kiln,  when  the  glazed  ware  is  not  baked,  is 
occupied  by  printed  biscuit-ware ;  sometimes  it  is  also  used  in 
tile-glazing  kilns  for  hardening  the  color  “  grounded”  on 
the  ware.  The  glazing  of  this  class  of  ware  is  a  matter 
of  experience,  a  full  knowledge  of  the  character  of  the 
clay  forming  the  body  of  the  tile  or  ware  is  necessary,,  as 
well  as  a  knowledge  of  the  age  and  behavior  of  the  kiln 
under  fire,  and  other  peculiarities. 

The  pyrometric  balls  employed  must  be  fully  understood 
in  all  their  changes  by  the  glazer,  and  he  must  carefully 
follow  the  heat  from  the  low  temperature,  at  which  enamel 
baking  commences,  through  its  progressively  increasing 
stages. 

When  the  melting  point  of  the  glaze  is  reached,  the  heat 
must  be  steadily  maintained,  and  the  mouths  of  the  furnaces 
carefully  watched  lest  the  heat  should  be  suffered  to  fall. 

The  firing  is  usually  continued  for  fourteen  hours,  and 
then  gradually  lowered  by  slight  additions  of  fuel,  after 
which  six  or  eight  hours,  or  longer  if  the  time  can  be  spared, 
are  allowed  the  kiln  to  cool. 

There  are  various  ways  of  glazing  ordinary  tiles,  some¬ 
times  a  glazing  compound  is  applied  within  the  saggers  into 
which  the  articles  are  placed  for  the  first  firing,  and  the 
glazing  done  without  any  other  burning  being  necessary. 

Or  the  glaze  may  be  mixed  with  the  earthy  matter  of 
which  the  tiles  are  formed,  and  be  produced  as  an  encaustic 
glaze  in  the  first  burning. 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC 


93 


The  designs  of  ornamental  bricks  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2 
are  one-eighth  full  size  and  are  a  few  of  the  numerous  ones 


Fig.  l. 


94  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

/ 

produced  by  the  Peerless  Brick  Company  of  Philadelphia, 
who  are  justly  celebrated  for  the  high  character  of  their 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


95 


artistic  executions  in  clay,  which  have  done  so  much  to  add 
to  the  beauty  and  variety  of  architectural  constructions,  by 
breaking  up  plain  brick  surfaces  and  substituting  relief  and 
intaglio  ornamentation.  Such  designs  as  those  shown  in 
Figs.  1  and  2  may  be  produced  in  such  encaustic  colors  as 
red,  brown,  buff,  etc.,  or  they  may  be  enamelled  in  any  de¬ 
sired  hue. 

When  a  person  builds  a  dwelling  for  his  own  use  he 
makes  an  exact  picture  of  his  tastes,  and  exhibits  the  degree 
of  his  refinement  and  cultivation,  whether  the  structure  be 
costly  or  not,  the  same  as  he  does  in  his  dress  and  personal 
appearance,  for  plain  people  build,  dress,  and  live  plainly, 
and  as  we  have  had  a  majority  of  this  kind  in  the  times 
gone  by,  we  now  possess  their  pictures  in  the  plain,  unas¬ 
suming  buildings  which  survive  them.  But  that  period  is 
now  rapidly  passing  away,  and  attractive  designs  in  archi¬ 
tectural  constructions  are  to  be  seen  on  all  sides,  in  suburbs 
and  country  as  well  as  in  towns  and  cities,  and  now  we  are, 
in  many  instances,  combining  elegance  of  appearance  with 
solidity  of  construction. 

It  is  not  at  all  necessary  to  make  a  house  expensive  in 
order  to  make  it  attractive,  for  some  of  the  most  costly  struc¬ 
tures  are  the  least  so. 

Pleasing  ornamentations  in  burned  clay  can  now  be  pur¬ 
chased  so  cheaply  that  a  person  who  builds  of  brick  without, 
them  generally  does  so  from  lack  of  all  desire  for  these  em¬ 
bellishments  of  the  exterior  of  his  home. 

The  ornamental  bricks  shown  on  pages  93  and  94  are 
made  from  tempered  clay,  and  are  moulded  and  pressed  by 


96  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

hand,  great  care  being  observed  to  have  the  clay  free  from 
stones  and  small  gravels,  and  also  in  the  handling,  rubbing 
or  sanding  and  drying  of  the  green  bricks,  for  if  the  drying 
be  done  too  rapidly  they  will  have  small  cracks  over  their 
surface,  which  are  great  objections  in  the  eyes  of  buyers, 
and  in  the  kiln  the  bricks  are  carried  along  gently  at  first 
in  the  burning  or  firing  in  order  not  to  “  crush”  or  “  squeeze” 
them,  as  they  become  soft  while  the  steam  or  “  water  smoke” 
is  being  driven  off. 

Earthenware  Glazes. 

Bricks  are  sometimes  glazed  in  a  manner  similar  to  earth¬ 
enware,  in  which  case  the  glaze  is  applied  to  the  surface  of 
the  brick  and  is  of  a  nature  much  more  fusible  than  the 
body.  This  glaze  is  transparent,  and  should  be  hard  enough 
not  to  be  easily  scratched  with  any  sharp  steel  instrument. 

Alumina,  in  small  proportion,  and  silica,  in  large  propor¬ 
tion  (derived  from  kaolin),  flint,  chalk,  feldspar,  saltpetre,  and 
alkalies  are  variously  used,  white  lead  being  the  base  of  this 
colorless,  transparent  glass-glaze.  The  iron  oxide  is  added, 
and  the  glaze  is  burnt  to  a  glass ;  this  glass  is  finely  pulver¬ 
ized  or  ground ;  and  after  being  tempered  with  water,  the 
brick,  or  the  earthenware  in  the  biscuit  state,  is  dipped  into 
it,  and  then  burnt  a  second  time,  at  a  low  heat  of  12°  to  30° 
Wedgewood’s  pyrometer,  during  which  the  glaze  is  fastened 
to  the  brick  or  earthenware,  as  the  case  mav  be. 

If  patterns  are  printed  on  earthenware,  they  are  always 
pressed  upon  the  biscuit  before  the  ware  is  dipped  into  the 
glaze.  Borax  is  used  to  intensify  the  colors,  and  to  get  rid 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


97 


of  an  undesirable  yellow  tinge,  and  in  order  to  produce  a 
bluish  hue,  a  very  small  quantity,  less  than  one  thousandth, 
of  smalt  is  added.  The  following  glaze  is  given  by  Cowper, 
and  to  form  which  Cornish  stone,  granite,  borax,  and  gyp¬ 
sum  are  used. 


Silica . 43.66 

Alumina  and  iron  oxide . 9.56 

Borax . 20.08 

Carbonate  of  lead . 15.19 

Chalk . 10.88 

Calcium  . 0.52 


A  cheap  salt  glaze,  applied  in  a  manner  similar  to  that 
for  stoneware,  can  also  be  given  to  bricks.  The  salt  glaze 
is  applied  when  the  stoneware  has  reached  nearly  its  high¬ 
est  temperature  in  the  kiln.  For  bricks  the  fires  should 
be  properly  managed,  and  at  the  right  temperature  in  a 
closed  kiln  or  oven  common  salt  is  thrown  uniformly  through 
holes  at  the  top  of  the  kilns ;  small,  light  scoop  shovels  are 
l  best  for  this  purpose.  The  amount  of  salt  necessary  for  a 
moderate  sized  oven  is  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  one  hundred 
and  sixty  pounds. 

After  about  one-half  the  quantity  of  salt  has  been  thrown 
into  the  oven,  the  fire  is  momentarily  increased,  then  reduced, 
and  a  few  of  the  specimens  examined.  The  remainder  of 
j  the  salt  is  then  thrown  in,  part  at  the  top,  and  part  regularly 
over  the  top  of  the  fire.  A  few  holes  in  the  doors,  not  ex¬ 
posed  to  the  wind,  are  allowed  to  go  unplugged  for  a  few 
hours ;  but  all  other  openings  are  carefully  closed  and  plas¬ 
tered  around  with  mud,  and  the  oven  allowed  to  cool  off  for 
7 


98 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


five  days.  When  the  salt  is  thrown  into  the  oven,  and 
quickly  followed  by  oxide  of  lead,  a  much  more  brilliant 
glaze  is  the  result. 

The  volatilized  salt  is  quickly  decomposed  by  the  steam  in 
the  smoke  into  chlorhydric  acid  and  soda,  which  forms  a 
veneering,  or  thin  film  of  soda  glass  on  the  surface  of  the 
bricks  or  ware,  by  uniting  with  the  silica  of  the  clay. 
Sandy  clays  become  the  most  lustrous,  and  receive  the  glaze 
best. 


Section  III.  Blue  Bricks. 

Blue  bricks  is  the  name  given  to  a  material  which,  for 
some  purposes,  has  no  equal,  being  for  some  requirements 
much  superior  to  the  best  quality  of  stone. 

In  England,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  Netherlands,  it  is 
most  highly  esteemed  for  road  and  stable  pavements,  copings, 
channel  courses,  and  for  solid  walls,  especially  hydraulic 
constructions. 

The  bricks  resemble  cast-iron  for  hardness,  but  are  much 
superior  to  it  for  durability,  being  incapable  of  being  eaten 
away  by  oxidizing. 

Clays  which  contain  the  greatest  number  of  elements 
that  are  soluble  in  chlorhydric  acid  are  the  best  for  the 
production  of  these  bricks,  and  for  terro-metallic  ware  in 
general. 

Natural  clay,  containing  oxide  of  iron  in  abundance,  and 
sometimes  highly  impregnated  with  lime,  and  which  is  con¬ 
sequently  much  more  fusible  than  ordinary  brick-clay,  is  the 
material  mostly  used. 


REMARKS  CONCERNING  BRICKS,  ETC. 


99 


In  Staffordshire,  the  clay  used  is  a  ferruginous  material, 
which  is  easily  fused  at  a  china-biscuit  heat. 

When  natural  materials,  properly  combined,  are  not  pos¬ 
sible  to  get,  iron  and  lime,  in  the  shape  of  slag  ground,  are 
usually  mixed  with  fat  clay ;  fine  coke  dust,  chalk  dust,  and 
mill  cinder  are  used  in  England. 

Pugging,  as  well  as  the  moulding  of  this  class  of  bricks, 
must  be  done  by  machinery. 

The  most  economical,  as  well  as  effective,  kilns  for  the 
burning  of  this  kind  of  bricks,  and  for  all  classes  of  terro- 
metallic  ware,  are  those  constructed  on  the  annular  system, 
as  the  firing  is  to  a  high  vitrifying  temperature,  and  the  cost 
of  fuel  is  a  most  expensive  item,  unless  kilns  on  the  con¬ 
tinuous  plan  are  employed.  The  blue  color  does  not  impreg¬ 
nate  the  whole  body  of  the  Staffordshire  brick,  as  for  terro- 
metallic  ware,  but  penetrates  only  to  about  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  from  the  surface. 

The  color  is  obtained  by  continually  submitting  the  stock 
or  ware,  when  at  a  high  degree  of  heat,  to  a  reducing  atmo¬ 
sphere  of  smoke,  thereby  converting  the  red  peroxide  of  iron 
into  protoxide;  sulphur  greatly  assists  this  process.  The 
salts  of  the  protoxide  of  iron  are  all  bluish  and  greenish. 
The  same  clay  or  material  may  be  made  to  yield  a  red  brick, 
blue  brick,  or  glass,  which  is  dependent  wholly  upon  the 
manner  and  the  degree  of  firing. 

The  Cumberland  and  other  soft  coals,  commonly  used 
in  this  country  for  burning  ordinary  building  bricks,  will 
not  answer  for  this  purpose,  as  they  are  too  hard  to  manage, 
as  the  successive  intermittence  in  heat  is  obtained  by 


100 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


very  heavy  charges  of  fuel,  which  are  permitted  to  burn 
quite  low.  The  quality  which  our  Cumberland,  and  all 
soft  coals  have  of  swelling,  or  largely  increasing  in  bulk 
after  being  fired  heavily,  makes  this  class  of  fuel  still  more 
undesirable  for  this  kind  of  burning,  and  besides  it  is  too 
quick,  and  has  too  much  flash. 

Wood  and  clean  peat  are  the  best  agents  for  meeting 
the  requirements  of  blue  brick  and  terro-metallic  ware 
burning. 

It  is  impossible  to  burn  this  class  of  pottery  in  rough 
open  kilns,  without  excessive  cost  for  fuel,  as  well  as  loss  in 
melted  and  salmon  stock. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  101 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND 

PROCESS. 

Section  I.  General  Remarks. 

In  describing  the  processes  of  brick-making,  we  shall  fol¬ 
low  the  manner  of  production  by  the  hand  process,  as  it  is 
in  the  District  of  Columbia,  for  the  reasons  that  the  manner 
of  the  manufacture  of  bricks,  as  it  is  conducted  in  the  city 
of  Washington  and  its  vicinity,  is  about  the  same  as  that  in 
most  portions  of  this  country. 

Also,  for  the  additional  reason  that  the  common  run  of 
building  bricks  there  produced  are  for  strength,  uniformity 
in  color,  as  well  as  in  size,  good  edges  and  corners,  and  for 
all  other  reasons  that  can  be  named,  the  best  that  are  made 
in  any  part  of  the  world. 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  enormous  quantities  of 
bricks  consumed  by  the  United  States  Government  and  the 
local  government,  have,  in  both  cases,  to  pass  the  inspection 
of  engineers  of  the  U.  S.  Army,  or  of  experts  employed  for 
the  purpose.  From  this  cause  the  common  bricks  have 
reached  a  high  standard,  as  the  annual  consumption  by 
both  branches  of  the  government  have  for  many  years  ex¬ 
ceeded  more  than  one-half  the  total  production.  Pressed  or 


102 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


front  bricks  have  not  until  lately  been  extensively  used  in 
Washington  for  facing  U.  S.  Government  buildings. 

A  larger  quantity  of  bricks  are  made  by  machinery  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  than  by  hand ;  but  in  describing  the 
processes,  I  shall,  for  this  particular  locality,  give  that  em¬ 
ployed  in  producing  the  hand-made  bricks.  To  do  this 
properly,  let  us  assume  that  we  have  passed  through  one 
season  of  manufacture,  and  have  been  compelled  to  stop 
operations  on  account  of  the  approach  of  freezing  weather, 
and  from  this  point  I  shall  start  and  carry  you  through  the 
making  and  burning  of  one  kiln  of  bricks,  which  will  cover 
the  whole  ground  in  a  systematic  manner. 

The  entire  process  of  brick-making  by  the  hand  process 
may  be  classed  under  six  heads,  viz: — 

1.  Preparation  of  the  clay. 

2.  Tempering. 

3.  Moulding. 

4.  Drying. 

5.  Setting  the  bricks  in  the  kiln. 

6.  Burning. 

Generally  in  all  hand-made  yards,  there  are  a  few  men 
who  are  more  useful  to  the  proprietor  of  the  works  than  are 
the  usual  run  of  his  laborers ;  they  are  dependent  upon  him, 
and  very  often  they  do  not  know  much  of  any  other  kind  of 
work  outside  of  the  brickyard.  The  balance  of  the  men 
generally  find  employment  for  the  winter  as  waiters  in  the 
city  hotels,  as  oyster  shuckers  in  the  restaurants,  or  as  ser¬ 
vants  in  private  families,  and  sometimes  as  drivers  of  coal 
carts  and  other  employments,  in  which  positions  they  remain 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  103 


until  the  work  of  brick-making  is  resumed,  which  is  about 
the  middle  of  April. 

The  number  of  men  that  the  proprietor  keeps  around  him 
during  the  winter  is  about  four  or  five  for  a  moderate  sized 
yard ;  these  are  usually  the  burner,  and  the  remainder  are 
from  his  gang  and  the  best  moulding  gang.  These  are  the 
men  who  do  the  first  stage  of  the  work,  or  prepare  the  clay. 

Section  II.  Preparation  of  the  Clay. 

This  work  commences  immediately  after  the  other  work 
stops,  and  the  first  thing  done  is  to  remove  the  top  soil ;  this 
vegetable  soil  is  called,  in  brickyard  parlance,  “  kelly,”  and 
the  operation  of  removing  it  termed  “taking  off  the  kelly.” 
In  England  this  soil  is  called  “  encallow,”  and  the  opera¬ 
tion  of  removing  it  is  termed  “  encallowing.” 

The  latter  term  is  much  more  appropriate  than  any  of  the 
others,  as  it  means  the  act  of  stripping  or  laying  bare,  and 
as  the  soil  is  stripped  from  the  clay  and  the  clay  laid  bare, 
it  is  the  term  that  should  be  generally  used. 

The  vegetable  soil  is  carried  to  the  level  places  where  the 
bricks  are  moulded,  called  the  “  floors,”  and  spread  over 
them  uniformly  to  the  depth  of  two  inches,  and  by  the  re¬ 
turn  of  brick-making  season  it  has  become  solidly  packed. 
The  operation  of  placing  the  soil  upon  the  places  where  the 
bricks  are  moulded  is  termed  “kellying  the  floors.” 

The  clay  is  now  ready  to  be  dug,  the  soil  having  been 
removed  from  the  top,  the  tools  used  for  digging  the  clay 
are  the  pick,  shovel,  and  crow-bar,  the  picks  are  the  usual 


104 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


mining  picks,  both  ends  are  made  fiat  or  chisel-ends,  the 
end  of  the  crow-bar  is  also  flat  or  chisel-ended  instead  of 
pointed. 

There  is  no  work  done  by  the  day  in  the  hand-made  brick¬ 
yards,  everything  is  done  by  the  task  or  contract,  just  as  in 
the  times  when  the  Children  of  Israel  were  in  bondage  to 
the  Egyptians. 

All  clay  is  dug  by  “  the  thousand,”  and  the  price  paid  is 
fifteen  cents  for  each  thousand  of  clay  dug,  “one  thousand” 
meaning  clay  sufficient  to  make  one  thousand  bricks,  and 
so  on. 

The  clay  is  dug  in  “  benches,”  that  is,  in  sections  usually 
sixteen  feet  long  and  running  the  height  of  the  clay  bank. 
When  the  laborer  wishes  to  commence  work  he  tells  the 
foreman  to  measure  him  off  a  bench ;  in  counting  clay  it  is 
estimated  that  it  takes  sixty-four  cubic  feet  of  clay  to  make 
one  thousand  bricks ;  all  benches  of  clay  are  laid  off  sixteen 
feet  long  and  four  feet  wide,  every  foot  in  height  counts 
one  thousand  of  clay;  if  the  bank  is  five  feet  high  the 
bench  will  contain  five  thousand  of  clay.  It  does  not  in 
fact  take  even  fifty  cubic  feet  of  clay  to  make  one  thousand 
bricks;  sixty-four  feet  to  the  thousand  was  the  quantity 
when  our  bricks  were  the  size  of  the  English  bricks. 

The  manner  of  digging  clay  is  to  undermine  the  face  of 
the  bank  of  clay,  leaving  small  pillars,  called  “  legs,”  one  at 
each  corner  and  one  in  the  middle;  chambers  are  next  cut 
into  the  bank  at  each  corner,  the  “  legs”  of  clay  are  next 
picked  out,  a  sharp  watch  being  kept  by  the  laborer  to  see 
that  the  bank  does  not  fall  unawares. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  105 


If  it  does  not  fall  while  the  legs  are  being  picked  out,  the 
laborer  gets  on  the  top  of  the  bank  and  driving  the  crow-bar 
into  the  clay,  on  a  line  in  several  places,  about  four  feet  back 
from  the  face  of  the  bank,  “  throws”  the  bench  of  clay.  The 
material  is  then  picked  into  lumps  and  thrown  back  with 
the  hands,  the  fine  clay  is  thrown  back  with  the  shovel,  and 
the  face  of  the  bank  is  picked  regularly,  and  the  bottom 
levelled,  after  which  the  laborer  is  ready  for  another  “fall.” 
That  is,  he  is  ready  to  repeat  what  he  has  just  finished. 

This  manner  of  digging  clay  is  extremely  hazardous ;  if 
the  common  sense  of  the  men  who  labor  at  this  kind  ot 
work  does  not  dictate  a  discontinuance,  then  it  should  be 
stopped  by  legislation.  A  heavy  penalty  should  be  imposed 
upon  the  proprietor  who  sanctions  this  manner  of  digging- 
clay,  and  a  much  more  severe  one  upon  the  man  who  is 
foolish  enough  to  persist  in  it. 

There  is  not  a  year  in  which  several  cases  for  the  coroner 
of  the  District  of  Columbia  do  not  grow  out  of  this  manner 
of  digging  clay,  besides  many  injuries  that  cripple  but  do 
not  kill. 

For  many  years  past  this  has  been  the  case  in  all  parts  of 
the  country;  the  greatest  number  of  accidents  of  this  cha¬ 
racter  occur  towards  the  end  of  the  winter,  when  the  thaws, 
which  come  suddenly,  make  the  clay  very  treacherous,  and 
often  cause  it  to  fall  without  the  least  indication  or  warning. 

While  the  clay  is  being  dug,  strips  of  clay  about  eight 
inches  wide  are  left  between  the  ends  of  the  separate  benches 
of  clay.  They  are  not  dug  and  are  called  “  combings,”  and 


106 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


if  the  laborers  are  not  very  trustworthy  there  will  be  more 
“  combings”  than  dug  clay. 

The  selection  of  proper  clay  for  the  purposes  of  brick- 
making,  and  the  advantages  of  digging  the  clay  early  in  the 
winter  and  of  exposing  it  to  the  action  of  frost,  have  been 
explained  in  Chapter  II. 

The  first  step  in  the  art  of  brick-making  having  been 
passed  by  the  preparation  of  the  clay,  i.  e.,  by  digging  and 
exposing  it,  we  are  now  ready  for  the  second  step,  that  of 
tempering  it. 


Section  III.  Tempering  the  Clay. 

To  temper  clay  means  to  mix  it  thoroughly,  and  prepare 
it  for  the  use  of  the  moulder,  who  must  have  it  in  a  condi¬ 
tion  not  too  soft  nor  yet  too  hard,  but  in  a  suitable  state  of 
plasticity  to  be  easily  and  solidly  moulded  into  bricks. 

The  ancient  way  of  tempering  was  by  treading  the  clay 
by  the  feet  of  men  or  beasts.  The  clay  is  now  tempered  by 
either  of  three  ways :  the  first  being  by  hand,  the  second  by 
the  pug-mill,  and  the  third  in  a  ring-pit. 

The  first  method  is  usually  employed  for  the  manufacture 
of  the  best  pressed  bricks,  and  sometimes  in.  the  production 
of  common  bricks. 

This  method  is  also  very  often  employed  in  country 
places. 

The  man  who  does  this  part  of  the  work  is  called  the 
temperer,  and  it  is  his  place  to  throw  the  clay  into  a  pile 
the  day  previous  to  its  being  used ;  while  he  is  spading  the 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  107 


clay  into  a  pile,  he  at  the  same  time  throws  water  upon  it ; 
this  pile  of  clay,  when  finished  for  common  bricks,  contains 
clay  sufficient  to  make  two  thousand  three  hundred  and 
thirty-three  bricks,  and  is  called  “  a  soak  heap.” 

The  next  morning,  before  the  moulder  is  ready,  the  tem- 
perer  commences  by  pulling  part  of  the  “  soak  heap”  down 
with  a  hoe ;  the  portion  of  the  clay  thrown  down  is  wetted 
with  water,  and  turned  over  many  times  with  a  spade.  Hav¬ 
ing  done  this  for  a  while,  he  next  trims  the  small  pile  of 
clay  into  shape,  and  commences  to  cut  through  it  with  an 
instrument  called  a  “  slasher,”  and  any  stone  that  he  may 
strike  with  the  “  slasher”  is  picked  out  of  the  clay.  After 
cutting  the  clay  for  a  time  in  this  way,  it  is  again  turned  over 
with  the  spade,  after  which  it  is  ready  for  the  moulder.  This 
operation  is  continued  until  all  the  clay  in  the  “  soak  heap” 
is  worked  out,  after  which  the  temperer  throws  up  another 
similar  pile  of  clay  which  is  allowed  to  soak  through  the 
night.  When  hand  temperers  are  employed,  in  addition  to 
this  work,  they  are  required  to  turn  up  ten  rows  of  bricks 
on  edge ;  and,  after  they  are  sufficiently  hard  to  wheel, 
hack  them  in  the  drying  shed.  The  tools  employed  in  this 
kind  of  tempering  are  an  ordinary  Ames’  No.  2  spade,  one 
hoe,  same  as  No.  3  English  hilling  hoe,  one  wooden  box 
open  at  one  end  and  top,  with  a  long  handle  in  the  solid 
end,  and  called  a  “  scoop,”  used  for  throwing  water  over  the 
clay,  and  one  “  slasher,”  which  is  a  piece  of  wrought  iron 
about  three  inches  wide,  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  and 
about  three  feet  long  from  the  handle  into  which  it  is  driven, 


108 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


the  handle  being  round,  and  about  two  and  one-half  feet 
long,  and  two  inches  in  diameter. 

The  common  bricks  made  from  hand-tempered  clay  are 
not  so  good  as  when  made  by  the  other  methods  of  temper¬ 
ing,  as  the  clay  is  not  packed  together  by  any  pressure  in 
hand-tempering,  and  the  bricks,  after  being  burned,  are  very 
open  or  porous.  When  the  process  is  used  for  making 
pressed  bricks,  the  result  is  different,  as  the  bricks  after  being 
moulded  are  pressed  very  hard  in  a  hand-press. 

The  next  process  for  tempering  is  by  the  pug-mill,  or  hop¬ 
per,  as  it  is  also  called.  To  explain  this  process,  I  shall 
here  have  to  explain  the  organization  of  the  “moulding 
gangs”  in  the  hand-made  yards. 

When  the  pug-mill  or  hopper  is  used,  it  is  customary  for 
three  gangs  to  make  or  mould  their  same  day’s  work  from  it. 

Each  gang  is  composed  of  one  moulder,  one  wheeler, 
and  one  boy  called  an  off-bearer.  The  moulder  shapes  the 
bricks  in  thin  cast-iron  moulds  from  the  clay  brought  to  him 
by  the  wheeler,  who  obtains  it  from  the  opening  in  the 
cylinder  as  it  issues  from  the  pug-mill;  the  boy  off-bears  or 
carries  the  bricks  from  the  moulding  table  and  lays  them  in 
rows  on  the  ground  called  the  “  floor,”  where  they  are  left 
to  dry. 

The  pug-mill  is  an  iron  shaft  with  knives  of  the  same 
material  about  eighteen  inches  long,  two  and  a  half  inches 
wide,  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  extending  from 
the  shaft  in  four  directions,  but  so  placed  that  one  does  not 
follow  directly  under  the  other.  To  trace  the  knives  around 
the  shaft  would  be  like  following  the  thread  of  a  screw.  At 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  109 


the  bottom  of  this  shaft,  and  all  on  the  same  level  following 
consecutively  are  four  broad,  curved  pieces  of  iron,  called 
sweeps,  pressers,  or  pushers,  which  terms  are  synonymous, 
and  their  use  is  to  force  the  tempered  clay  through  an 
opening  near  the  bottom,  in  the  side  of  the  cylinder  or  box 
inclosing  the  pug-mill. 

Sometimes  the  casing  which  incloses  the  pug-mill  is  made 
square  and  of  wood,  two  inches  thick  usually,  leaving  the 
clay  to  pack  into  the  square  corners ;  at  other  times  the  cyl¬ 
inder  is  formed  of  iron,  cast  in  sections  and  bolted  together. 
In  the  Southern  States  the  entire  arrangement  of  upright 
shaft,  knives  and  pressers  is  more  often  called  a  “  hopper” 
than  a  pug-mill. 

Mr.  Alfred  Hall,  of  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  has  invented  a 
useful  improvement  in  the  construction  of  pug-mills  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  brick,  terra-cotta,  fire-clay  wares,  pot¬ 
tery,  and  all  work  or  articles  where  clay,  plaster-of-Paris,  or 
the  like  have  to  be  brought  into  a  homogeneous  and  uni¬ 
form  condition  to  form  moulds,  or  brick,  pottery,  or  other 
articles  of  earthenware;  and  the  novelty  consists  in  the 
construction  and  arrangement  of  parts  in  regard  to  the  ver¬ 
tical  revolving  shaft  and  the  blades  or  knives. 

In  machines  of  this  kind  it  has  been  customary  to  em¬ 
ploy  knives,  pressers,  and  muddlers  of  different  and  various 
constructions,  and  they  have  been  secured  to  a  vertical  re¬ 
volving  shaft  in  various  ways. 

This  invention  consists  in  a  peculiar  blade  or  arm  (shown 
in  perspective  in  Fig.  4)  and  a  shaft  having  a  special  and 
peculiar  mortise,  into  which  the  arm  or  knife  is  secured. 


110 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


Fig.  3  is  a  vertical  central  section ;  Fig.  4,  a  perspective 
detail  of  one  of  the  arms  or  knives ;  Fig.  5,  details  of  the 
parts  separated,  showing  their  relative  formation. 


A  is  the  vertical  shaft,  to  be  placed  in  any  suitable  cylin¬ 
der  for  holding  the  material  to  be  operated  upon.  It  is 
supported  in  position  by  the  framing,  so  that  it  can  be  read¬ 
ily  revolved.  It  has  formed  in  it  a  series  of  cross  or  hori¬ 
zontal  mortises,  B ,  each  adapted  to  hold  the  tenon  D  of  the 
blade  C.  Each  mortise  B  has  its  upper  side  made  on  a  hor¬ 
izontal  line,  while  its  lower  surface,  b ,  is  inclined  downward 

from  the  outer  end  inward  to  or  nearlv  to  the  centre  of  the 

•/ 

shaft,  thus  giving  to  the  mortise  the  shape  or  form  in  its 
vertical  width  of  a  half-dovetail.  The  tenon  D  of  the  blade 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  Ill 


C  is  made  in  form  corresponding  to  the  shape  of  the  mortise 
B — that  is,  its  under  face,  d ,  is  cut  away  so  as  to  give  it  an 
upward  incline  from  the  outer  end  to  the  inner  end  of  the 
blade  proper,  and  its  outer  end  is  made  of  such  size  that  it 
will  just  fit  and  enter  snugly  into  the  mouth  or  outer  end  of 
the  said  mortise.  As  the  tenon  is  pushed  farther  into  the 
mortise  it  drops  downward  on  the  inclined  surface  b  and 
away  from  the  upper  side  of  said  mortise,  and  leaves  a  space 
above  it,  into  which  the  key  E  is  driven.  When  the  tenon 
and  key  are  both  inserted  the  blade  will  not  work  loose, 
because  the  inclined  surface  b  and  the  increasing  thickness 
of  the  tenon  operate  to  give  increasing  force  to  hold  the 
blade  against  any  movements  tending  to  draw  the  blade 
outward.  The  material  which  is  being  acted  upon  will 
exert  a  pressure  on  the  ends  of  the  keys  E  and  prevent 
them  from  working  loose.  The  blade  G  has  its  under  face 
flat  or  made  to  a  horizontal  plane.  Its  upper  side  is  gradu¬ 
ally  thickened  from  the  edges  to  a  line  drawn  diagonally 
from  the  middle  of  the  outer  end  to  a  point  on  the  inner 
end  next  the  tenon,  midway  between  the  middle  of  said 
blade  and  the  rear  edge. 

In  Fig.  4  the  dotted  line  x  x  represents  the  middle  line 
of  the  blade.  The  diagonal  line  c2  c2  is  the  line  of  greatest 
thickness  of  the  blade.  The  blade  thus  formed  provides  an 
upwardly-inclined  front  face,  c,  which  is  wider  at  its  inner 
end  next  the  shaft  and  narrower  at  its  outer  end.  The  rear 
face,  c1,  is  wider  at  its  outer  end  than  at  its  inner  end.  The 
peculiar  construction  of  the  blade  gives  much  better  results 
in  mixing  the  material  in  the  cylinder  or  pits.  The  mate- 


112 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


rial  4s  sooner  brought  into  a  homogeneous  mass  and  into  the 
required  condition  for  the  moulds. 

The  key  E  is  preferably  wedge  shape,  as  shown. 

/  are  the  lower  scrapers,  which  are  provided  with  tenons 
of  half-dovetailed  form,  and  are  secured  in  the  shaft  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  blades  G. 

In  case  of  accidental  breaking  of  one  of  the  blades  the 
broken  blade  can  easily  be  removed  and  another  one  sub¬ 
stituted. 

The  pug-mill  and  cylinder  inclosing  are  so  placed  that 
the  pivot  or  spindle  at  the  bottom  of  the  mill  will  be  in  the 
centre  of  the  diameter  of  a  semicircular  pit  which,  to  con¬ 
tain  clay  for  three  gangs,  measures  eight  feet  from  the 
centre  of  the  pug-mill  shaft  to  the  edge  or  brick  face  of  the 
pit,  which  is  four  feet  deep. 

This  semicircular  pit  is  usually  walled  around  with  bricks, 
which  should  be  hard  burned,  and  the  bottom  formed  of  two 
inch  oak  planks,  cut  wedge  shape. 

Directly  in  front  of  the  pug-mill  there  is  a  fan-shaped 
hole  or  pit,  which  allows  the  wheeler  to  cut  the  clay  away 
with  a  spade  as  it  issues  from  the  hole  in  the  side  of  the 
cylinder  at  the  bottom,  inclosing  the  mill.  If  the  pug- 
mill  is  turned  by  a  horse,  it  is  usual,  if  the  clay  bank  is  too 
far  away  to  be  conveniently  filled  with  wheelbarrows,  to 
harness  the  animal  to  a  cart,  and  haul  the  clay  to  fill  the 
pit,  after  the  work  of  grinding  has  been  completed,  which 
usually  requires  about  six  hours.  A  long  pole  fixed  in  a 
yoke  in  the  top  of  the  shaft  is  the  leverage  by  which  the 
pug-mill  is  turned. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  113 

The  pit  around  the  pug-mill,  when  the  clay  is  ground  Jby 
horse  power,  holds  usually  material  sufficient  to  make  seven 
thousand  bricks ;  after  the  pit  has  been  filled  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  temperer  to  see  that  sufficient  water  is  let  to  the  clay 
to  soak  it. 

The  clay  in  the  pit  is  left  to  soak  over  night,  and  in  the 
morning  the  temperer  gets  into  the  pit  of  mud,  and  first 
digs  a  hole  in  the  clay,  next  to  the  pug-mill,  throwing  the 
material  into  the  mill. 

It  is  necessary  to  grind  the  same  clay  through  the  pug- 
mill  several  times,  the  first  thing  in  the  morning,  before  it 
comes  to  the  proper  degree  of  plasticity  for  moulding ;  this 
operation  is  called  “  sizing  the  clay.” 

The  temperer  having  secured  the  proper  plasticity,  or 
“  size”  for  the  clay,  he  continues  to  shovel  the  mud  into  the 
pug-mill,  each  wheeler  of  a  gang,  in  turn,  spading  it  away 
from  the  bottom  of  the  pug-mill,  as  it  is  forced  through  the 
orifice  at  the  base  of  the  cylinder. 

During  this  process  of  tempering,  a  small  stream  of  water 
is  continually  running  into  a  barrel  sunk  into  the  ground, 
near  the  box  of  the  pug-mill ;  if  some  of  the  clay  is  very 
hard,  there  is  used  a  large  quantity  of  the  water  from  the 
barrel;  but  if  it  is  soft,  only  a  small  quantity  of  water  is  used. 

Sometimes  mud,  seemingly  almost  slush,  will  be  thrown 
into  the  pug-mill ;  but  when  it  issues  at  the  bottom,  it  is 
stiff  and  firm  ;  when  this  is  done,  the  men  call  it  “  grinding 
the  water  out  of  the  clay ;”  but  it  is  really  grinding  the 
water  into  the  clay,  and  thoroughly  mixing  it. 

The  wrork  of  the  temperer  for  the  pug-mill  is  confined 
8 


114 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA  COTTA. 


entirely  to  the  clay  in  the  pit,  and  he  has  nothing  to  do 
with  handling  any  bricks,  as  is  the  case  with  the  hand- 
temperer  before  mentioned. 

The  pug-mills  are  sometimes  driven  by  steam-power,  in¬ 
stead  of  being  turned  by  a  horse ;  in  case  they  are  driven 
by  steam,  there  is  a  large  bevel-wheel  placed  on  the  top  of 
the  pug-mill  shaft,  which  bevel-wheel  gears  into  a  smaller 
pinion  on  a  shaft  keyed  to  a  large  pulley. 

The  pulley  on  the  pug-mill  of  this  character  is  gene- 

« 

rally  about  five  feet  in  diameter,  and  eight  inches  face ;  if 
the  pulley  is  too  small  in  diameter,  the  mill  is  liable  at  times 
to  clog  and  stop,  leaving  the  belt  either  to  slip  or  break. 

When  a  machine  of  this  kind  is  used  for  tempering  clay, 
the  pit  which  surrounds  it  can  be  enlarged  to  any  reasonable 
extent,  to  meet  the  requirements  of  almost  any  sized  yard. 

The  power  of  the  small  pinion  into  the  large  bevel-gear 
wheel  is  usually  about  one  into  six;  i.  e .,  the  pinion  makes 
six  revolutions  while  the  wheel  into  which  it  meshes  makes 
but  one  revolution. 

The  amount  of  thoroughly  tempered  clay  which  a  mill 
of  this  kind  will  turn  out  is  surprising;  four  men  constantly 
throwing  clay  into  it  cannot  overstock  it,  if  it  is  going  at 
any  kind  of  quick  speed. 

The  speed  can  be  regulated  so  as  to  travel  at  any  required 
gait;  but  when  it  is  intended  for  fast  work,  the  pushers  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pug-mill  shaft  must  be  very  strong,  and 
braced  together  with  one-half  inch  iron  rods. 

The  temperers  who  work  at  the  pug-mills  must  be  very 
able  men,  and  thoroughly  understand  their  business,  and  the 
nature  of  the  clay  in  which  they  are  working. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  115 


The  tools  used  are  for  each  temperer  one  Ames  shovel,  No. 
2,  one  hilling  hoe,  same  as  that  used  by  the  hand-temperer, 
and  one  bucket. 

The  pug-mill  which  has  been  described  is  the  best 
thing  that  can  be  used  for  tempering  brick  or  terra-cotta 
clays ;  it  packs  the  clay  very  closely,  and  the  ware  made  from 
material  tempered  in  this  manner  is  very  homogeneous. 

The  cost,  excluding  engine,  complete,  and  in  running 
order,  ought  not  to  exceed  three  hundred  and  fifty  dollars, 
which  includes  timber,  framing  work,  tie  rods,  etc. 

The  next  manner  of  tempering  is  by  the  ring-pits,  which 
furnish  clay  for  six  gangs,  and  are  run  either  by  horse  or 
steam  power. 

These  pits  are  about  twenty  feet  in  diameter,  two  feet  in 
depth,  and  hold  clay  sufficient  to  make  fourteen  thousand 
bricks;  they  are  cased  around  with  hard-burned  bricks,  and 
the  bottom  is  usually  covered  with  oak  planks,  cut  wedge 
shape.  Hard  pine  is  cheaper  than  oak,  and  is  also  used. 

There  is  a  pedestal  firmly  set  in  the  centre  of  the  pit, 
upon  which  the  machinery  that  works  the  tempering  wheel 
is  placed. 

For  a  ring-pit  worked  by  horses,  shown  in  Fig.  6,  there 
is  a  long  shaft  of  iron  passing  through  the  centre  of  a  wheel, 
about  six  feet  in  diameter,  called  the  tempering  wheel,  and 
terminating  beyond  the  ring  far  enough  for  two  horses  to  be 
hooked  to  it,  and  have  room  sufficient  to  travel  around  the 
ring  with  it. 

There  is  a  gearing  of  wheels  so  arranged  as  gradually  to 
push  the  tempering  wheel  from  the  centre  to  the  outer  edge 


116 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


of  the  pit,  while  the  wheel  is  revolving  around  the  circle, 
and  when  it  reaches  the  outer  edge  to  again  gradually  draw 
it  towards  the  centre. 

In  the  pits,  using  horses  to  work  them,  there  is  sometimes 
a  small  wheel,  about  one  foot  and  six  inches  in  diameter, 
and  which  travels  in  a  level  track  around  the  edge  of  the 
ring,  supporting  the  long  iron  shaft  which  passes  through  it. 


Fig.  6. 


Recent  changes  have  been  made  in  the  wheel  by  placing 
the  spokes  at  an  angle,  producing  a  dish  in  the  wheel,  so  as 
to  suit  the  circle  of  the  pit,  saving  the  labor  of  the  horses ; 
it  also  grinds  and  leaves  the  surface  of  the  clay  level  in  the 
pit  during  and  after  grinding.  The  open-tooth,  and  the  box 
racks,  are  now  in  use ;  the  latter  have  the  cogs  placed  on 
the  inside  around  the  rack,  a  rib  on  the  top  side  placed 
lengthwise,  and  when  coming  in  contact  with  a  pin  placed 
in  the  bottom  side  of  the  cross-bar  on  the  saddle,  causes  the 
rack  to  shift.  The  racks  can  be  made  of  different  lengths, 
to  suit  smaller  sized  pits,  when  necessary.  Directions  can 
be  furnished  for  setting  the  wheels  on  application  to  the 
manufacturers. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  117 


When  steam  is  the  motive  power,  the  principle  o£  con¬ 
struction  is  about  the  same ;  but  the  shaft  which  passes 
through  the  tempering  wheel  does  not  extend  much  beyond 
the  edge  of  the  ring,  and  the  whole  machinery  is  attached  to 
a  vertical  shaft,  and  on  the  top  is  a  heavy  bevelled  gearing. 

Serious  difficulties  have  been  encountered  in  constructing 
and  operating  machines  of  this  class,  from  the  fact  that  the 
power  which  has  propelled  them  has  been  communicated 
through  some  horizontal  shaft  above  the  receptacle  for  the 
material  to  be  tempered,  which  arrangement  has  necessitated 
the  use  of  a  long  vertical  shaft  to  communicate  the  motion 
of  such  horizontal  shaft  to  the  shaft  and  gear-wheels  which 
propel  the  tempering  wheel.  This  arrangement  of  the  parts 
has  rendered  necessary  expensive,  and  in  many  cases  incon¬ 
venient,  frame-work  to  support  the  shafting,  which  often 
interferes  with  the  efficient  working  of  the  machine,  and 
is  always  a  large  addition  to  its  cost.  Another,  and  a  very 
serious  objection,  has  arisen  from  the  fact  that  the  pinion 
which  meshes  into  the  circular  rack  upon  the  upper  surface 
of  the  clay  receptacle  has  been  constructed  in  accordance 
with  well-known  rules  as  to  its  diameter  and  the  pitch-line  of 
its  teeth,  which  form  of  construction,  it  is  claimed,  is  found 
defective  in  this  particular  case. 

When  steam  power  is  employed  for  driving  these  machines, 
two  of  the  pits  are  placed  on  the  same  line,  the  distance 
between  the  nearest  points  of  the  circles  being  about  six 
feet. 

There  are  no  separate  temperers  for  the  ring-pits  of  either 
class ;  the  driver  of  the  horses  in  one  case,  and  the  engineer 


118 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


in  the  other,  let  the  water  into  the  clay,  and  see  that  it  is 

properly  tempered.  It  requires  two  of  these  pits,  of  either 

class,  to  temper  clay  for  six  gangs,  as  it  is  worked  out  of  one 

pit,  while  the  other  pit  of  clay  is  being  tempered.  The 

sheds,  which  must  be  maintained  over  the  ring-pits  of  both 
* 

classes,  is  much  more  expensive  for  the  ones  that  are  run 
by  steam-power  than  for  the  other  class,  as  the  timbers 
have  to  be  very  heavy,  and  well  framed  and  braced.  Some¬ 
times  twenty-eight  thousand  of  clay,  which  is  sufficient 
for  twelve  gangs,  is  worked  out  of  two  ring-pits  daily;  when 
this  is  so,  the  pits  are  filled  after  the  gangs  stop  work,  and 
the  clay  tempered  during  the  night  time. 

After  the  clay  is  tempered  in  ring-pits,  it  is  covered  with 
large  battened  panels,  made  of  light  pine  wood  nailed 
together,  the  object  being  to  keep  the  clay  moist,  and  pre¬ 
vent  it  from  drying  on  the  top  before  it  is  used.  The  labor¬ 
ers  in  the  brick-yards  like  the  clay  tempered  in  ring-pits,  as 
they  can  go  in  separate  gangs  at  any  time  and  commence 
work  without  waiting  for  a  complement  of  gangs,  which  has 
to  be  done  when  pug-mills  are  used  for  tempering. 

It  is  no  unusual  thing  for  brick-yard  gangs,  in  the  hot 
season  of  the  year,  to  commence  their  task  at  about  twelve 
o’clock  at  night,  when  the  moon  gives  sufficient  light,  and 
have  their  work  of  moulding  done  before  seven  o’clock  in 
the  morning ;  the  ring-pits  facilitate  this  more  than  do  any 
other  mode  of  tempering  the  clay. 

The  invention  of  Mr.  Henry  Aiken,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
is  shown  in  Figs.  7,  8,  9,  and  10,  and  it  relates  to  improve¬ 
ments  in  that  class  of  clay-pits  in  which  the  tempering- wheel 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  119 


is  caused  to  traverse  round  the  pit  by  power  derived  from  a 
stationary  engine  or  other  motor ;  and  the  main  object  of 
his  invention  is  to  dispense  with  complex  driving-gearing, 
and  to  apply  the  power  more  advantageously  than  usual,  a 
further  object  being  to  simplify  the  devices  by  which  the 
radial  movement  of  the  tempering-wheel  on  its  shaft  is 
effected,  and  to  so  construct  the  same  that  a  vertical  move¬ 
ment  of  the  wheel  is  allowed  without  danger  of  throwing 
the  operating  mechanism  out  of  gear.  These  objects  he 
attains  in  the  manner  which  I  will  now  proceed  to  describe, 
reference  being  had  to  the  drawings,  in  which — 

Fig.  7  is  a  plan  view  of  a  clay-pit  with  his  improvements ; 


120  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

and  Figs.  8,  9,  and  10,  sections  on  the  lines  1  2,  3  4,  and 
5  6,  Fig.  7,  respectively. 

A  is  the  pit,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  vertical  standard, 
ci ,  and  to  the  top  of  the  latter  is  adapted  a  loose  sleeve,  as, 
carrying  two  pulleys,  b  and  d,  the  former  of  which  receives 
power  from  any  adjacent  shaft — for  instance,  that  shown  at 
c — while  the  pulley  d  transmits  this  power,  by  means  of  a 
suitable  belt,  to  a  pulley,  e,  carried  by  a  vertical  shaft,  /, 
adapted  to  bearings  at  the  outer  end  of  a  radial  arm,  B ,  the 
inner  end  of  which  turns  on  the  central  post  a.  From  the 
outer  end  of  the  arm  B  projects  a  short  shaft,  B1,  carrying  a 
loose  traction-wheel,  D ,  the  periphery  of  which  is  adapted 
to  the  rim  of  the  pit,  and  a  worm-wheel,  g ,  on  the  hub  of 
the  traction-wheel  gears  into  a  worm,  h,  on  the  shaft  f  (See 
Fig.  8.)  For  the  sake  of  economy,  it  is  preferable  to  make 
the  wheel  D  comparatively  light,  and  to  increase  its  traction 
power  by  hanging  upon  the  outer  end  of  its  shaft  a  box  of 
clay  or  other  cheap  weight,  E.  The  arm  B  is  connected  to 
the  outer  end  of  the  shaft  F ,  which  carries  the  tempering- 
wheel  /,  by  means  of  the  link  i  and  rods  j  j,  and  the  temper¬ 
ing-wheel  is  hung  to,  or  forms  part  of,  a  sleeve,  J”,  so  adapted 
to  the  shaft  F  that  it  can  be  moved  from  or  toward  the 
centre  of  the  pit,  this  movement  being  effected,  as  usual,  by 
means  of  the  double  rack  M  and  pinion  JV,  Fig.  10,  the  di¬ 
rection  of  the  movement  depending  upon  whether  the  upper 
or  lower  rack  is  in  gear  with  the  pinion.  Instead  of  rotat¬ 
ing  the  pinion  N  from  a  central  shaft  by  means  of  spur¬ 
gearing,  as  usual,  however,  it  is  secured  to  one  end  of  a 
spindle,  w,  adapted  to  bearings  at  the  inner  end  of  the  arm 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  121 


B ,  and  carrying,  near  its  opposite  end,  a  worm-wheel,  P, 
the  teeth  of  which  engage  with  a  worm,  S,  secured  to  the 
stem  a.  (See  Fig.  9,  and  dotted  lines,  Fig.  10.) 

When  power  is  applied  to  the  shaft  f  at  the  outer  end  of 
the  arm  B ,  the  traction-wheel  D  is  caused  to  revolve,  and 
travels  round  the  rim  of  the  pit,  carrying  with  it  the  arm  P, 
and  consequently  the  shaft  F  and  tempering- wheel  /,  while 
at  the  same  time  the  movement  of  the  worm-wheel  P 
around  the  worm  S  on  the  central  stem  a  causes  the  rota¬ 
tion  of  said  worm-wheel  and  the  operation  of  the  mechanism 
which  effects  the  radial  movement  of  the  tempering-wheel. 

It  will  be  evident  that  by  the  above-described  arrange¬ 
ment  the  power  required  to  effect  the  movement  of  the  tem¬ 
pering-wheel  is  applied  more  directly,  and  with  less  loss  by 
friction,  than  when  this  power  is  applied  to  the  inner  end  of 
the  tempering-wheel  arm  by  means  of  gearing  from  a  central 
rotating  shaft,  while  the  use  of  the  simple  traction- wheel  D 
at  the  edge  of  the  pit  obviates  the  necessity  of  locating  costly 
and  inconvenient  mechanism  at  this  point. 

By  the  use  of  the  fixed  worm  S  on  the  stem  a,  and 
the  worm-wheel  P  carried  by  the  arm  P,  the  said  wheel 
P  can  be  caused  to  revolve  at  the  required  speed  without 
the  intervention  of  the  usual  system  of  gearing,  which  is 
complicated  and  expensive,  and  causes  loss  of  power  by 
friction. 

It  will  be  observed  in  Figs.  7,  9,  and  10  that  the  inner 
end  of  the  shaft  F  is  pivoted  to  the  shaft  w,  which  carries 
the  pinion  N  for  operating  the  rack  M \  so  that  when  the 
tempering-wheel  rises  or  falls,  owing  to  inequalities  in  the 


122 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


bottom  of  the  pit,  the  centre  of  movement  will  be  at  the 
shaft  m,  thus  preventing  the  risk  of  throwing  the  rack  out 
of  gear  with  the  pinion,  which  this  movement  causes  in 
machines  of  this  class  as  usually  constructed. 

It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  in  carrying  out  this  inven¬ 
tion  that  both  the  arm  B  and  shaft  F  should  be  used.  For 
instance,  the  traction-wheel  and  its  operating  devices  might 
be  carried  by  the  end  of  said  shaft  F,  the  belt  which  trans¬ 
mits  power  from  the  pulley  d  to  the  pulley  e  in  such  case 
being  arranged  at  such  a  height  that  it  will  not  interfere 
with  the  tempering-wheel  I. 

Section  IV.  Moulding. 

The  next  step  in  the  process  of  producing  hand-made 

•  * 

bricks  is  that  of  moulding  the  clay  after  it  has  been  tem¬ 
pered,  and  this  is  performed  in  light  cast-iron  boxes,  having 
both  the  top  and  bottom  open  and  unobstructed,  and  which 
are  twice  as  long  as  they  are  wide,  and  are  called  moulds. 

The  wheeler  brings  the  tempered  clay  to  the  moulder,  and 

* 

piles  it  upon  a  wooden  stand  in  front  of  him.  The  stand, 
which  is  called  a  “  table,”  is  about  four  feet  square,  and 
made  in  height  to  suit  the  moulder. 

On  the  left-hand  corner  of  the  table  there  is  screwed 
securely  a  piece  of  cast-iron,  one-half  inch  thick,  nine  inches 
wide,  twelve  inches  long,  and  turned  up  at  one  end,  and 
down  at  the  other ;  this  iron  is  called  the  “  moulding  cleat,” 
and  is  shown  in  Fig.  11. 

The  moulder,  with  both  hands,  pulls  down  a  lump  of 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  123 


the  tempered  clay,  takes  a  handful  of  moulding  sand  in  his 
right  hand,  from  a  tub  close  by,  throws  the  sand  over  the 
lump  of  clay,  works  clay  and  sand  into  a  peculiar  shape, 
called  “  the  warp,”  and  dashes  it  down  with  great  force 
into  the  mould  which  rests  upon  the  moulding  cleat,  using 


Fig.  11.  Fig.  12. 


both  hands.  Having  done  this,  he  takes  an  instrument, 
somewhat  resembling  a  plasterer’s  trowel,  called  a  “plane,” 
shown  in  Fig.  12,  with  which  he  strikes  off  the  clay  piled 
above  the  top  of  the  mould. 

The  off-bearer  now  takes  the  mould  and  the  inclosed 
brick,  lays  the  brick  on  the  “  floor,”  scrapes  the  inside,  and 
particularly  the  corners  of  the  mould,  with  a  knife  suspended 
by  a  string  from  his  side.  The  off-bearer  places  the  cleaned 
brick  mould  in  a  sand  tub  convenient  to  the  moulder,  and 
by  the  time  another  brick  is  made,  he  is  ready  to  place  it 
alongside  of  the  other  on  the  floor.  This  is  continued  until 
there  are  fifty-eight  bricks  in  the  row,  and  the  rows  are  con¬ 
tinued  until  they  number  forty ;  then  part  of  a  row  contain¬ 
ing  thirteen  bricks  is  made,  which  completes  the  “  task”  ol 
moulding. 

Each  gang,  for  a  day’s  work,  produces  two  thousand 
three  hundred  and  thirty-three  bricks,  three  gangs  seven 
thousand,  six  gangs  fourteen  thousand  bricks,  and  so  on. 


124 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


The  hand-made  yards  in  the  District  of  Columbia  vary  in 
their  capacity  from  three  gangs  to  twenty-four  gangs.  The 
material  used  for  sanding  the  moulds  is  very  highly  impreg¬ 
nated  with  oxide  of  iron  and  mica ;  the  iron  gives  a  beau¬ 
tiful  red  color  to  the  hard-burned  bricks,  and  the  mica  allows 
the  brick  to  slip  easily  from  the  mould. 

The  art  of  perfect  moulding  by  hand  consists  in  tilling, 
uniformly,  every  portion  of  the  brick  mould,  and  in  so  man¬ 
ipulating  the  clay  and  moulding  sand  thrown  into  it,  that 
the  brick  shall  contain  no  cracks  or  “  sand  flaws,”  and  in 
so  “  planing”  off  the  clay  from  the  top  of  the  mould  that 
neither  hollow  nor  swelling,  called  a  “  belly,”  is  made  on 
the  flat  part  of  the  brick. 

The  usual  time  for  a  good  gang  to  do  a  day’s  work  of 

« 

moulding  is  from  five  to  five  and  one-half  hours. 

The  moulder  is  the  head  of  each  gang;  all  complaints 
against  him,  his  wheeler,  or  his  off-bearer  are  made  to  him, 
and  he  sees  that  any  imperfections  are  remedied. 

It  is  the  duty  of  each  moulder  to  get  the  moulding  sand 
from  the  sand-pile  and  spread  it  out  in  fhe  sun  to  dry ;  the 
off-bearer  rakes  the  dried  sand  in  a  pile,  and  sieves  it  into  a 
half  barrel,  called  “  the  tub ;”  after  it  is  sieved,  he  wheels  it 
into  the  brick-shed  and  covers  it,  so  that  no  water  can  get 
into  it. 

The  wheeler  gathers  the  stones  and  hard  lumps  of  clay 
that  have  been  thrown  out  by  the  moulder,  and  wheels 
them  to  some  out  of  the  way  place. 

The  tools  and  appliances  used  by  a  hand-made  brick-gang, 
in  addition  to  those  which  have  been  mentioned,  are  as  fol¬ 
lows,  viz  : — 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  125 


One  Ames’  spade  No.  2,  for  wheeler. 

One  clay  barrow  for  wheeler. 

One  sieve,  No.  42,  for  off-bearer. 

One  brick  barrow  for  off-bearer. 

One  brick  barrow  for  moulder. 

There  is  a  tool  used  for  scraping  off  and  levelling  the 
moulding  floor,  and  levelling  the  bottom  of  the  drying-shed 
preparatory  to  hacking  the  bricks.  It  consists  of  a  piece  of 
light  pine  board,  one  inch  thick,  twenty  inches  long,  by 
six  inches  wide,  set  upright,  with  a  long  light  handle  in 
the  centre.  At  the  bottom  is  tacked  a  thin 
piece  of  steel,  generally  an  old  wood-saw 
blade,  with  the  teeth  turned  upward,  and 
the  smooth  edge  forming  the  bottom. 

This  tool  is  never  furnished  by  the  pro¬ 
prietor  of  the  yard,  it  is  always  the  private 
property  of  the  moulder.  The  tool  is  called 
a  “lute”  (Fig.  13),  and  the  owner  of  it 
generally  seems  to  think  as  much  of  it  as 
he  does  of  his  wife,  and  makes  as  much 
disturbance  about  it,  if  it  happens  to  be¬ 
come  mislaid  or  stolen,  as  if  he  had  lost 
his  whole  family. 

It  is  always  the  custom  for  the  moulder 
to  get  the  “  table,  stool,  and  water  bowl” 
in  readiness  before  the  first  day’s  make  of  bricks  is  produced, 
in  the  commencement  of  the  season,  on  which  day  none  of 
the  hands  in  the  yard  do  more  than  one-half  the  usual 
task ;  twenty  rows  of  brick  are  made,  instead  of  forty ;  but 
all  hands  are  allowed  and  paid  for  a  full  day’s  work. 


Fig.  13. 


126 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


The  next  step  in  the  process  of  manufacture  is  the  drying 
of  the  bricks. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  moulder  to  take  entire  care  of  fifteen 
rows  of  the  bricks  made  by  him,  and  laid  out  on  the  floor 
by  the  off-bearer;  the  wheeler  is  also  charged  with  the 
care  of  fifteen  rows,  and  the  off-bearer  with  the  remaining 
ten  rows,  and  the  fraction  of  a  row,  and  the  task  of  no 
member  of  the  moulding  gang  is  completed  until  the  day’s 
make  of  brick  are  safely  placed  in  the  drying-shed ;  and  if 
portions  are  lost  through  exposure,  from  the  negligence  of 
any  member  of  the  gang,  the  value  of  such  loss  is  charged 
to  him,  and  deducted  from  his  pay. 

Section  V.  Drying  the  Bricks. 

The  first  step  in  the  drying  of  hand-made  bricks  is  to  turn 
those  upon  edge  that  were  made  the  day  previous ;  if  there 
are  no  indications  of  rain,  the  bricks  are  “  turned  up”  early 
in  the  morning,  and  allowed  to  stand  upon  edge,  exposed  to 
the  sun  until  about  four  o’clock  in  the  afternoon,  when  each 
man  “  takes  in  his  share,”  and  carefullv  hacks  them  in  the 
drying-shed ;  usually  they  are  hacked  about  eight  courses 
high  on  the  edge,  and  the  hacks  kept  separate,  to  allow  cir¬ 
culation  of  air.  There  is  a  space  left  between  the  bricks  of 
one-lialf  inch,  and  a  “  head”  or  pier  is  built  at  each  corner 
of  the  “rows.” 

If  there  should  be  indication  of  rain  before  the  usual  time 
for  “  taking  in  of  the  bricks,”  and  any  of  the  bricks  are 
hard  enough  to  handle,  they  are  wheeled  into  the  shed ;  if 
not  firm  enough,  they  are  left  to  be  “  washed,”  that  is,  the 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  127 


bricks  on  edge  are  again  laid  flat,  and  the  rain  falls  upon 
them. 

Some  clays  will  stand  this,  but  bricks  made  of  other  clays 
are  entirely  destroyed,  if  not  by  the  rain,  then  by  the  sun, 
as  they  break  in  half  as  soon  as  the  heat  again  strikes  them. 

Bricks  that  will  stand  “  washing”  are  wheeled  into  the 
shed  and  set  for  salmon  or  arch  bricks,  when  they  go  into 
the  kiln. 

The  bricks  having  been  exposed  to  the  rain  are  called 
“  washed  bricks” ;  they  have  a  rough  appearance,  and  are 
generally  not  much  esteemed,  but  they  make  the  strongest 
bricks  that  come  out  of  a  kiln ;  and  when  hard-burned, 
they  have  no  equal  for  foundation  or  sewer  work. 

The  drying-sheds  usually  run  the  length  of  the  brick 
floors,  and  immediately  adjoin  them,  there  being  one  shed 
on  each  side  of  a  floor.  The  sheds  are  usually  cheaply 
built,  entirely  of  boards.  They  are  about  twenty-eight  feet 
wide  between  the  outside  posts,  four  feet  and  six  inches 
high  at  the  sides  next  to  the  floors,  and  run  to  an  incline  of 
about  thirty-five  degrees  on  each  side  to  the  ridge  pole, 
which  is  supported  by  chestnut  posts  in  the  centre  of  the 
shed. 

The  roof  is  made  by  allowing  the  boards  to  extend  from 
the  ridge  pole  to  the  stringer  at  the  low  part  of  the  shed, 
separating  the  bottom  boards  far  enough  and  covering  this 
opening  with  a  lap-board. 

No  support  of  any  kind  is  given  to  the  boards  between 
the  centre  of  the  shed  and  the  stringer  or  low  portion,  as 
the  water  not  only  runs  down  the  top  of  the  boards,  but 


128 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


follows  the  underside  also,  and  should  this  water  meet  any 
obstruction,  like  a  stringer  or  support  of  any  kind,  before  it 
reached  the  end  of  the  board,  it  would  drip  into  the  shed 
and  ruin  the  bottom  of  the  shed  as  well  as  the  bricks. 

The  ends  of  the  brick  sheds  are  closed ;  but  the  sides  are 
usually  left  open.  The  boards  forming  the  roof  often  sag 
in  the  centre ;  but  it  is  seldom  that  water  gets  into  the  shed 
from  this  cause. 

After  remaining  in  these  sheds  for  about  two  or  three 
weeks  the  bricks  are  generally  in  condition  for  setting;  hut 
during  rainy  periods  it  often  requires  a  longer  time  to  thus 
naturally  dry  the  bricks. 

An  Improved  Brick-drying  Shed. 

Heretofore,  as  we  have  explained,  the  process  of  drying 
bricks  has  been  to  spread  them  upon  the  ground,  one  sepa¬ 
rated  from  the  other,  to  allow  the  sun  and  air  full  access, 
and  when  they  were  partially  dry  they  were  piled  in  a  stack, 
where  the  process  of  drying  was  continued  until  the  bricks 
were  in  a  fit  condition  to  be  burned.  Bv  this  method  of 
drying,  which  in  itself  was  a  slowT  process,  the  bricks  were 
liable  to  be  damaged  when  on  the  ground  by  sudden  storms 
of  rain  washing  the  corners  off  and  roughening  the  surface 
thereof,  producing  an  undesirable  grade  known  in  the  mar¬ 
ket  as  “  washed  bricks.”  The  necessary  handlings  required 
in  stacking,  or,  as  it  is  technically  called,  “hacking,”  damage 
the  bricks  by  chipping  off  the  corners  and  bending  the  same, 
as  well  as  requiring  a  large  expenditure  of  labor,  whereby 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  129 


the  cost  of  the  bricks  is  materially  increased ;  but  by  this 
improved  shed,  which  can  be  used  for  drying  either  hand¬ 
made  or  wet,  machine-made  bricks ;  these  defects  have  been 
greatly  obviated,  and  the  bricks  are  dried  with  greater 
facility. 

Fig.  14  is  an  end  elevation  of  a  brick-drying  structure 
embodying  a  portion  of  the  invention,  partly  in  section. 


Fig.  15  is  a  plan  of  a  brick-board.  Fig.  16  is  a  plan  view 
of  a  part  of  a  bench  having  attached  thereto  a  mould-lander 
or  til  ting-board,  upon  which  is  a  brick-board.  Fig.  17  is  a 
vertical  section  taken  through  line  x  of  Fig.  16.  Fig.  18  is 
a  plan  view  of  the  hinged  boards.  Fig.  19  is  a  vertical  sec¬ 
tion  of  the  lifting  mechanism  attached  to  the  lever  of  Fig. 

9 


130 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


18.  Fig.  20  is  a  side  elevation  of  a  part  of  the  brick-drying 
structure,  partly  in  section.  Fig.  21  is  a  plan  of  a  brick- 
board  mounted  on  wheels.  Fig.  22  is  a  side  elevation  of 
Fig.  21.  Fig.  23  is  a  cross-section  of  the  ways  on  which  the 
brick-board  car  moves,  and  Fig.  24  is  a  cross-section  of  the 
rafter  or  beam  Ir  in  Fig.  20.  Fig.  25  is  a  plan  of  a  modi- 


Fig.  20 


Fig.  22 


ft 

Fig.  25 


fication  of  the  movable  roof.  Fig.  26  is  a  vertical  longitud¬ 
inal  section  taken  through  a  line  directly  under  the  rod  u' 
in  Fig.  25. 

In  the  Figs.  14  and  20,  a  a  are  uprights,  which  stand 
preferably  apart  at  the  same  distance  from  one  another, 
being  about  equal  to  the  length  of  the  brick-boards,  as 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  131 


shown  in  Fig.  20.  The  uprights  support  the  rafters  b  and 
receive  the  cleats  c,  arranged  one  over  the  other,  and  in  such 
a  position  as  that  when  the  brick-boards  are  laid  from  one 
series  of  cleats  to  the  opposite  one  the  brick-boards  will  lie 
approximately  level. 

The  roof  may  be  formed  so  that  it  may  be  opened  to  allow’ 
the  sun  and  air  to  enter,  or  be  closed  to  exclude  the  rain 
or  dew.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  pivoting  the  roof- 
boards  e.  Figs.  14  and  20,  and  connecting  them  by  a  strip, 
/,  of  wood  or  iron,  whereby  all  the  pivoted  boards  may  be 
opened  or  closed  at  once,  as  shown  in  Fig.  14.  The  strip  / 
may  be  operated  directly  by  the  hand,  by  a  lever,  or  by  any 
suitable  means. 

Three  ways  of  arranging  the  roof-boards  so  that  the  air 
may  be  admitted  or  excluded  are  shown  in  the  drawings, 
Fig.  14  showing  the  pivot  in  the  centre  and  the  boards 
when  closed,  overlapping  in  a  manner  common  to  window- 
shutters,  Fig.  18  showing  the  roof-boards  hinged  to  station¬ 
ary  strips  laid  on  the  rafters,  gutters  e1  being  provided  be¬ 
neath  the  joints.  The  hinged  boards  shown  in  Fig.  18  are 
lifted  by  a  rod  or  strip  /\  which  may  be  operated  either  by 
hand  directly,  or  by  a  lever  /2,  pivoted  or  fulcrumed  as 
shown  in  Fig.  19,  and  connected  to  the  rod  / 1  by  chains  or 
other  suitable  means,  whereby  all  of*  the  hinged  boards  can 
be  lifted  or  lowered  simultaneously.  The  weight  of  the  rod 
f  upon  the  boards  keeps  them  down  tightly  when  closed. 
The  hinged  boards  are  arranged  at  right  angles  to  the  ridge¬ 
pole,  and  may  extend  from  one  end  of  the  drying-racks  to 
the  other.  The  lever  f\  Fig.  19,  may  be  operated  by  a 


132  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

rope  of  convenient  length  attached  to  one  end  of  the  lever, 
as  shown.  The  third  way  in  which  the  roof-boards  may  be 
arranged  is  shown  in  Figs.  25  and  26,  in  which  t  are  sta- 
tionarv  boards  secured  to  the  rafters,  and  which  are  over- 
lapped  by  the  sliding  boards  u.  The  fixed  boards  may  have 
gutters  on  their  upper  side  near  the  joints,  as  at  tl,  Fig.  26, 
and  if  necessary  gutters  may  also  be  made  on  the  top  of  the 
boards  ?/,  in  the  same  figure.  Small  wheels  may  be  let  into 
the  under  side  of  the  sliding  boards,  moving  on  the  under 
boards  or  on  tracks,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  movement  of 
the  sliding  boards.  The  sliding  boards  u  are  moved  by  the 
rod  w1,  Figs.  25  and  26,  which  in  turn  is  operated  by  the 
mechanism  shown  in  Fig.  26,  suitably  connected  thereto, 
which  mechanism  is  attached  to  both  ends  of  the  rod,  in 
order  to  open  and  close  the  sliding  boards,  and  a  hood  may 
be  used  to  cover  the  ridge-piece  and  the  joints  at  that  place. 

The  brick-boards  rn  are  formed  with  projecting  cleats  g. 
Fig.  15,  on  the  under  side,  so  that  when  the  boards  are 
placed  side  by  side  on  the  cleats  in  the  brick-drying  struc¬ 
ture  the  extremities  of  the  brick-board  cleats  g  will  abut, 
and  thus  form  an  opening  between  the  boards,  through 
which  the  air  may  freely  pass.  The  cleats  g  on  the  brick- 
boards  are  arranged  to  engage  with  the  cleats  c  in  the 
brick-drying  structure,  so  that  the  boards  may  be  readily 
and  securely  held  in  position  without  any  danger  of  sliding 
off.  The  boards  m  are  further  provided  with  strips  r  upon 
the  upper  side,  as  shown  in  Fig.  15,  against  which  the  brick- 
mould  rests  w^hen  the  brick-board  is  being  loaded.  Open¬ 
ings,  as  s,  Fig.  15,  may  be  made  through  the  brick-board  m , 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  133 


to  permit  the  passage  of*  air.  The  boards  may  be  further 
strengthened  by  a  cleat  on  the  under  side,  at  the  middle. 

Adjacent  to  the  brick-drying  structure  the  inventor  con¬ 
structs  a  bench  h ,  Figs.  16  and  17,  to  one  edge  of  which  is 
pivoted  a  tablet  or  tilting-board  n ,  Fig.  17,  of  a  sufficient 
size  to  hold  the  brick-board  m ,  which  bench  may  be  placed 
in  close  proximity  to  the  brick-machine,  when  the  bricks  to 
be  dried  are  so  made. 

The  manner  of  placing  the  green  brick  upon  the  brick- 
board  is  as  follows:  The  tilting-board  n  being  in  its  loading 
position,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  on  Fig.  17,  the 
brick-board  is  placed  thereon,  and  is  held  in  place  by  a  stop- 
piece  o,  and  the  workman  takes  the  mould  from  the  ma¬ 
chine,  and,  resting  it  upon  the  strip  r  upon  the  brick-board, 
turns  it  and  deposits  the  mould,  with  its  contents  of  green 
brick,  upon  the  brick-board  without  injury.  This  is  re¬ 
peated  until  the  brick-board  is  full,  and  when  the  last  mould 
of  brick  is  laid  on,  the  weight  of  the  brick  causes  the  tilting- 
board  to  revolve,  which  then  comes  to  a  horizontal  position, 
as  in  Fig.  17.  The  moulds  being  taken  off  of  the  bricks, 
the  brick-board,  with  its  load  of  brick,  is  then  removed  to 
the  drying  structure,  which  is  near  at  hand,  where  they 
remain  without  further  handling  until  dry  and  ready  for 
burning. 

The  tilting-board  n  is  so  constructed  or  pivoted  that  when 
the  brick-board  is  removed  it  returns  to  its  loading  position. 
Several  of  these  tilting-boards  may  be  placed  between  the 
brick-machine  and  drying-racks — as  many  as  may  be  neces¬ 
sary. 


134 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


If  desirable,  the  brick-boards  may  be  mounted  upon 
wheels,  as  shown  in  Figs.  21  and  22,  either  grooved  or  flat, 
and  move  on  tracks  laid  upon  the  cleats,  as  in  Fig.  20,  in 
the  drying  structure,  or  secured  in  some  other  suitable  man¬ 
ner  to  the  uprights  a,  and  having  a  slight  pitch  or  descent 
from  one  end  of  the  drying  apparatus  to  the  other,  in  order 
to  facilitate  the  movement  of  the  loaded  cars  on  the  tracks. 
The  cars,  after  being  loaded  with  the  green  brick,  are  placed 
upon  the  tracks  and  moved  to  the  other  end,  one  after  the 
other,  until  each  track  is  full,  and  in  order  to  prevent  the 
cars  from  striking  each  other  too  heavily,  and  thus  displace 
the  brick,  their  descent  may  be  checked,  either  by  a  work¬ 
man  or  by  other  suitable  means.  When  the  brick-boards 
are  mounted  upon  wheels,  the  cleats  gl  on  the  under  side  of 
the  brick-boards  are  placed  so  that  they  extend  beyond  the 
ends  of  the  cars,  as  shown  in  Fig.  21,  and  thus  admit  the 
circulation  of  air. 

The  rails  may  be  constructed  as  shown  in  Fig.  23.  The 
rail  j  is  secured  to  a  strip  Jc,  and  has  a  side-piece  I,  as  a  fur¬ 
ther  prevention  against  the  cars  slipping  off  the  track. 

In  order  that  no  moisture  can  possibly  leak  through  upon 
the  brick,  the  inventor  provides,  in  addition  to  the  other 
means,  gutters,  as  ft2,  Fig.  20,  extending  from  the  ridge-piece 
to  the  eaves,  under  the  joints  where  the  shutters  meet  the 
rafters  ft1,  to  carry  off  the  water. 

The  brick-drying  structures  may  be  one  hundred  feet  long, 
more  or  less,  and  in  building  them  the  inventor  prefers  to 
place  them  so  that  the  eaves  of  one  may  touch,  or  nearly  so, 
those  of  the  other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  14,  and  at  or  under  the 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  135 


point  of  meeting-  to  provide  a  gutter  b3,  Figs.  14  and  20, 
suitably  pitched  and  supported,  into  which  the  gutters 
Fig.  20,  and  e1,  Fig.  18,  may  lead.  By  this  construction  a 
covered  way  a,  Fig.  14,  is  made  for  the  passage  of  the  work¬ 
man,  and  all  the  operations  can  be  carried  on  without  regard 
to  the  weather,  and  complete  protection  is  assured. 

If  deemed  expedient,  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  drying 
structure  may  be  protected  by  movable  parts  similar  to  those 
in  the  roof;  or  protectors  made  of  several  boards  nailed 
together,  of  sufficient  height,  may  be  used. 

The  roof  may  be  extended,  if  desirable,  so  as  to  cover 
other  operations  in  the  process  of  brick-making,  so  that  the 
brick-yard  may  be  completely  covered,  and  it  can  be  adapted 
to  works  producing  bricks  either  by  hand  or  machinery, 
and  it  is  especially  valuable  wherever  fine  front  or  orna¬ 
mental  bricks  are  manufactured. 

Section  VI.  Description  of  Wheelbarrows  ;  Setting  and 
Burning  the  Bricks  ;  Improvements  in  constructing 
Permanent  and  Temporary  Kilns. 

a.  Description  of  Wheelbarrows. 

Wheelbarrows,  which  are  important  appliances  of  a  brick¬ 
yard,  are  usually  of  one  of  three  different  styles  of  construc¬ 
tion  ;  one  kind  being  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the  clay 
from  the  pug-mill  or  ring-pit  to  the  moulding-table,  which 
variety  is  called  a  “clay-barrow another  is  for  wheeling 
the  green  bricks  from  the  drying-sheds  to  the  kiln,  and  this 


136 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


kind  is  termed  a  “  brick-barrow and  the  third  is  used  for 
wheeling  moulding  sand  to  and  from  the  drying-floors ;  this 
is  called  a  “  hopper”  or  “  box-barrow.” 

In  the  clay  barrows  the  back  is  made  slanting,  so  as  to 
throw  the  weight  of  the  clay  well  over  the  centre  of  the 
wheel ;  but  in  the  brick  barrows  the  back  is  made  so  as 
to  form  right  angles  with  the  side  bars,  and  the  wheel  pro¬ 
trudes  through  the  back  of  the  wheelbarrow  about  one- 
quarter  its  diameter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  31. 

The  hopper  or  box-barrow  has  all  its  sides  made  on  a 
slant  of  about  30°,  being,  of  course,  larger  at  the  top  of  the 
hopper  or  box  than  at  the  bottom.  A  great  many  of  these 
barrows  were  formerly  made  with  wooden  wheels,  and  had 
iron  gudgeons,  which  worked  in  wooden  boxes  on  the  un¬ 
der  side  of  the  handles ;  but  the  majority  of  brick-yard  bar- 
rows  are  now  made  with  iron  wheels,  spindles,  and  boxes. 

Sometimes  brick-yard  barrows  are  so  constructed  as  to  be 
easily  folded  up  for  transportation,  or  when  not  in  use,  and 
are  employed  and  found  useful  for  brick-yard  plants  which 
require  frequent  changes,  as  for  the  construction  of  tunnels, 
culverts,  etc.,  on  the  lines  of  railways,  and  for  other  pur¬ 
poses.  Such  a  barrow  is  shown  in  Figs.  27,  28,  29,  and 
30  ;  and  it  consists  in  certain  constructions,  combinations, 
and  arrangements  of  parts,  whereby  a  very  strong  and  cheap 
wheelbarrow  is  produced,  which  can  easily  be  folded  for 
economizing  room  in  transportation,  and  thereafter  put  into 
working  order  in  very  little  time. 

When  it  is  desired  to  employ  this  form  of  wheelbarrow 
for  handling  bricks,  the  back  bars  F  should  form  a  right 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  137 


angle  with  the  side  bars  A ,  and  the  wheel  D  should  be 
moved  forward  and  cleave  the  back  and  bottom  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  diameter  of  the  wheel,  in  order  to  relieve  the 
weight  upon  the  handles,  as  in  Fig.  31. 


FIG.  29 


Figure  27  is  a  bottom  view  of  a  folding  wheelbarrow. 
Fig.  28  is  a  side  elevation  of  the  same.  Fig.  29  is  a  side 
view  of  the  same  when  folded  up,  and  Fig.  30  is  a  back 
view  of  the  barrow. 

When  the  wheelbarrow  is  not  in  use,  and  is  either  to  be 


138 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


stowed  away  or  packed  for  transportation,  the  nuts  are  re¬ 
moved  from  the  wheel-bolt  Z)1,  the  bolt  removed,  and  the 
wheel  D  taken  off.  The  braces  H  are  swung  up  until  they 
meet  on  the  inclined  edge  t/1,  where  they  remain  by  means 
of  friction.  The  back-board  frame,  with  the  back-board  g 
is  now  turned  down  upon  the  wheel-bars  C ,  forming  thereby 
an  extension  of  the  bottom  B.  The  braces  M  are  now  dis¬ 
engaged  from  the  bolts  m,  and  folded  together  on  the  in¬ 
clined  edge  J  of  the  cross-bar  L.  Finally,  the  legs  K  are 
swung  up  between  the  side  bars  A,  and  the  folding  up  of 
the  wheelbarrow  is  completed,  as  represented  in  Fig.  29. 

To  get  the  wheelbarrow  in  working  condition  again,  the 
described  operation  is  reversed.  The  folded  wheelbarrow 
requires  very  little  room  for  stowing  away,  and  may  be  uti¬ 
lized  for  many  purposes  for  which  it  is  particularly  adapted 
on  account  of  its  large  platform. 

The  side  bars,  wheel-bars,  and  their  respective  cross-bars, 
by  their  peculiar  construction,  constitute  a  frame  of  great 
strength,  and  of  easy  access  to  its  component  parts  in  case 
of  accidental  breakage  or  disarrangement,  and,  as  a  whole, 
it  is  an  article  of  small  expense  and  great  simplicity. 

A  represents  the  side  bars  terminating  in  handles  a  in 
front,  and  extending  to  the  back  end  of  the  bottom  B.  C 
represents  the  wheel-bars,  which  are  fastened  to  the  bottom 
B  between  the  side  bars,  and  extend  back  to  the  wheel  D. 
The  side  and  wheel-bars  are  fastened  together  and  to  the 
bottom  B  by  means  of  cross-bars  E  and  bolts  e.  Near  the 
back  ends  of  the  side  bars  A  the  frame  of  the  backboard  is 
fastened.  The  frame  consists  of  two  outside  bars  F,  and 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  139 


two  inside  bars  F1,  hinged  in  pairs  to  the  side  bars  A  by 
means  of  bolts  a1,  and  united  on  top  by  a  cross-bar  G.  The 
backboard  g  proper  is  fastened  to  the  inside  bars  Fl,  and 
the  backboard  frame  is  kept  in  proper  position  by  braces  F[ 
fastened  outside  of  the  wheel-bars  G  by  means  of  the  wheel- 
bolt  Z1,  the  wheel  used  having,  by  preference,  a  hollow 
hub,  which  revolves  on  the  bolt. 

The  upper  ends  of  the  braces  H  are  pivoted  at  h  to  the 
cross-bar  G ,  the  edge  g 1  of  which  is  inclined  in  the  direction 
of  the  braces  H ,  when  fastened,  so  that  they  may  be  with 
ease  swung  around  and  folded  together  on  the  edge,  when 
they  are  unfastened  from  the  wheel-bolt  Dx.  The  side  bars 
A  are  provided  with  sockets  /,  which  are  of  the  usual  con¬ 
struction,  and  applied  in  the  usual  manner.  Two  of  the 
bolts  ?‘,  by  which  the  sockets  /  are  fastened  to  the  side  bars, 
serve  as  pivots  for  the  swinging  legs  //,  and  for  that  purpose 
pass  through  the  side  bars,  the  legs,  and  the  wheel-bars  C, 
thus  keeping  the  latter,  by  aid  of  the  nuts  A*,  from  lateral 
movement.  The  legs  K  are  connected  by  a  cross-bar  Z, 
with  an  inclined  edge  Z,  to  permit  the  easy  swinging  of  the 
braces  J/,  which  are  pivoted  thereto,  and  secured  by  their 
upper  ends  to  the  under  sides  of  the  side  bars  A  by  the 
bolts  m. 

The  barrow  shown  in  Fig.  31  is  for  wheeling  bricks,  and  it 
has  a  large  malleable  iron  wheel,  which  is  an  aid  to  the 
laborer.  The  barrow  is  thoroughly  braced,  and  is  built  so  as 
to  combine  great  strength  with  lightness  of  construction,  and 
with  ordinary  care  such  a  barrow  should  run  and  do  good 


140 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


service  for  ten  or  twelve  seasons,  and  the  usual  price  of 
such  a  wheelbarrow  is  $6.50. 


Fig.  31. 


The  brick  truck  shown  in  Fig.  32  is  seldom  used  for 
handling  hand-made  bricks ;  but  is  employed  for  carrying 
machine-made  bricks,  and  is  usually  built  of  two  sizes,  with 
either  open  platform,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  or  of  light  boards. 


Fig.  32. 


The  open  top  is  used  for  carrying  bricks  in  the  moulds, 
while  the  close  platform  is  used  for  carrying  them,  as  made 
ready  for  haking  or  for  conveying  tile.  Price  of  either  open 
or  close  pattern,  No.  1,  without  springs,  $8.  No.  2,  with 
elliptic  springs,  $10. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  141 


b.  Setting  the  Bricks  in  the  Kiln. 

The  bricks  having  been  moulded  and  dried,  the  next  step 
is  that  of  setting  or  placing  them  in  the  kiln  preparatory  to 
burning,  which  work  is  generally  done  by  task  and  usually 
by  a  force  of  five  men,  called  the  “  setting  gang,”  which  is 
composed  of  one  foreman  called  the  “  setter,”  and  four»men 
who  bring  the  bricks  to  him,  called  the  “  wheelers  and 
tossers.” 

A  day’s  work  for  this  gang  is  to  take  20,000  bricks  out 
of  the  sheds,  wheel  them  to  the  kiln  and  toss  them  to  the 
setter,  who  places  them  in  a  proper  manner  for  burning. 

In  a  kiln  the  first  bricks  set  are  in  the  back  arch,  and 
arch  bricks  in  setting  are  divided  into  four  classes,  viz :  the 
straight  courses,  pillar,  hangers,  and  skintle  bricks,  the 
names  depending  upon  the  position  which  they  occupy  in 
the  arch. 

The  arch  is  generally  fourteeu  courses  high,  the  bricks 
being  set  on  edge  and  one-half  inch  apart;  the  bottom 
eight  courses  of  the  arch  are  usually  called  the  “  straight 
courses,”  on  the  top  of  which  are  placed  the  projecting 
six  courses  forming  the  arch,  and  which  are  called  the 
“  over  hangers.” 

The  “  pillar”  bricks  are  the  ones  between  the  straight 
courses,  and  the  “  skintles”  are  the  bricks  set  diagonally  in 
order  to  tie  the  over  hangers  together,  as  shown  in  Fig.  33a. 

The  row  of  bricks  first  set  on  the  top  of  the  arch  is  called 
the  “tie  course,”  and  the  fourteen  courses,  including  the 
“  tie  course”  first  set  on  the  top  of  the  arch,  is  called  the 


142 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


“lower  bench,”  and  next  fourteen  courses,  which  usually 
finish  the  height  of  the  kiln,  are  called  the  “  upper  bench.” 
“  Forty-two  high”  is  the  way  that  the  height  of  the  kiln 
is  described,  and  this  is  the  usual  height. 


Fig.  33 a. 


Fig.  33 b  shows  ten  courses  of  common  bricks  set  on  the 
bench  in  the  kiln,  so  placed  as  to  preserve  one  uncrossed 
face  to  each  brick.  The  arch,  lower  and  upper  benches 
having  been  set,  there  is  a  brick  laid  flat  on  the  topmost 
brick;  this  brick  is  called  the  “raw  platting;”  then  on  the 
top  of  the  raw  platting  a  burned  brick  is  laid  reversed  way 
across  it ;  this  is  called  the  “  burnt  platting.” 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  setting  gang,  in  addition  to  placing 
the  twenty  thousand  bricks  in  the  kiln,  to  “  platt”  it,  and 
then  cover  up  the  face  of  the  raw  bricks  with  boards  on 
end  ;  this  process  is  called  “  facing  up.” 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  143 


In  this  manner  the  kiln  is  “  set  out,”  or  filled  with  green 
bricks,  and  sometimes  two,  three,  and  even  four  setting  gangs 
are  simultaneously  at  work  in  the  same  kiln,  if  there  is  a 
great  demand  for  the  bricks. 

Before  any  bricks  are  set  into  a  kiln,  it  is  plastered  or 
daubed  all  over  the  inside  face  with  mud,  in  order  to  stop 
any  cracks  that  there  may  be  in  the  face  of  the  walls,  and  to 
hold  the  heat  when  the  kiln  is  on  fire.  For  this  work  one 
dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  is  paid  for  a  small  kiln  holding- 
one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  bricks,  and  two  dollars  and 
fifty  cents  for  a  kiln  holding  one  half  million  of  bricks.  The 
bricks  having  all  been  placed  in  the  kiln,  the  opening  through 
which  the  bricks  are  wheeled  into  the  kiln,  and  hauled  out 
after  burning,  is  closed  or  walled  up. 

This  opening  is  called  a  “  facing,”  “bestowing,”  or  “  abut¬ 
ment,”  and  the  process  of  walling  it,  “  closing  the  bestowing.” 

The  wall  of  the  bestowing  is  built  in  two  thicknesses  of 
bricks ;  the  first  or  inner  one  is  put  up  and  “  daubed”  or 
plastered  over ;  then  the  second,  or  outer  thickness,  is  built 
and  “  daubed.”  Care  is  taken  in  this  operation  to  prevent 
air  from  entering  and  lowering  the  temperature  of  the  kiln. 

The  gang  that  puts  up,  daubs,  and  props  the  “  bestowing” 
is  allowed  one-half  day  each  man. 

A  good  setting  gang  can  commence  work  at  five  o’clock 
in  the  morning  and  place  20,000  bricks  in  the  kiln,  and 
have  their  task  completed  by  mid-day. 

The  bricks  have  now  been  made  and  set,  and  are  ready  to 
be  burned  and  converted  from  a  perishable  into  an  imperish¬ 
able  substance. 


144 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


c.  Burning. 

The  high  price  of  wood  in  large  cities  makes  it  entirely 
out  of  the  question  to  use  it  generally  for  burning  bricks. 

The  process  of  burning  by  coal  is  the  one  that  we  shall 
describe ;  the  principle  is  the  same  as  for  wood,  the  agents 
employed  to  produce  the  heat  being  the  only  difference. 

Brick-kilns  requiring  wood  for  fuel  are  flat  in  the  bottom, 
and  paved  with  bricks ;  coal-kilns  have  part  of  this  pavement 
cut  away  under  the  portion  which  is  to  form  the  arch  of  the 
kiln,  and  the  place  filled  with  grates,  and  under  each  of  the 
grates  there  is  a  trench  dug  all  the  way  through  the  kiln, 
called  the  “  ash-pit.”  A  space  at  each  side  of  the  kiln  is  dug 
out  to  the  depth  of  the  ash-pits,  the  top  covered  with  a  slant¬ 
ing  shed,  and  the  space  is  called  the  “  kiln-shelter,”  and 
serves  as  shelter  for  the  laborers  and  fuel  while  the  kiln  of 
bricks  is  being  burned.  Before  fire  is  placed  in  the  coal 
kiln,  the  ashes  made  in  burning  the  previous  kiln  of  bricks 
are  drawn  out  of  the  pits  into  the  kiln  shelter,  thrown  into 
wheelbarrows  and  carried  out  of  the  way,  and  after  fire  is 
started  in  the  kiln  the  ashes  are  drawn  each  day. 

The  roof  over  the  kiln  is  next  examined  to  see  that  it  is 
not  leaky,  and  then  every  alternate  brick  which  was  laid  flat, 
and  called  the  “  burnt  platting,”  is  stood  upon  its  end,  this 
being  done  in  order  to  allow  the  steam,  or  as  it  is  called  in 
burning,  the  “  water  smoke,”  to  escape  as  rapidly  as  pos¬ 
sible. 

The  platting  having  been  raised,  the  next  step  is  to  start 
a  small  fire  in  the  mouth  of  each  arch,  using  light  splintered 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  145 


wood,  and  building  it  up  with  lumps  of  coal,  the  fire  should 
be  started  on  the  side  of  the  kiln  that  will  allow  the  smoke 
to  be  blown  by  any  wind  entirely  through  the  arches  of  the 
kiln. 

After  the  fires  have  been  started  in  the  mouths  of  all  the 
arches  on  the  windward  side  of  the  kiln,  they  are  next  made 
in  the  mouths  of  the  arches  on  the  opposite  side. 

The  fires  are  built  up  gradually  from  each  side  until  they 
meet  in  the  centre  of  the  kiln,  and  this  is  called  “  crossing 
the  fires.” 

The  fires  should  be  “  crossed”  much  more  slowly  for  dry 
or  damp  clay  machine-made  bricks  than  for  hand-made 
bricks. 

When  bricks  produced  by  the  hand  process  are  well  dried, 
and  there  is  no  dampness  in  the  bottom  of  the  kiln  or  in 
the  ash-pits,  the  fires  can  be  crossed  in  forty-eight  hours ; 
but  for  machine-made  bricks  they  should  never  be  crossed 
inside  of  seventy-two  hours. 

It  should  be  noticed  that  the  steam,  or  “  water  smoke”  is 
freely  coming  out  of  the  top  of  the  kiln  from  the  time  that 
fire  is  put  into  it. 

The  fires  are  now  increased,  until  the  fifth  day,  or  say, 
in  other  words,  the  one  hundred  and  twentieth  hour  after 
setting  fire;  by  this  time  the  “  water  smoke”  or  steam  from 
the  top  of  the  kiln  should  have  changed  from  a  white, 
watery,  into  a  bluish-black  smoke,  and  the  fire  should  in  the 
night-time  be  seen  plainly  coming  through  the  top. 

At  this  period  the  kiln  is  said  to  be  u  hot,”  and  the  bricks 

are  now  ready  to  shrink,  or  as  it  is  termed  in  burning,  to 

10 


146 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


“  settle,”  and  all  the  platting  is  put  down,  and  tightened. 
Care  must,  to  this  point,  have  been  observed  to  increase  by 
degrees  the  heat,  the  firing  having  been  gradually  reduced 
from  four  hours  to  about  two  hours  between  fires  at  this 
stage. 

The  fires  that  the  bricks  are  now  to  receive  are  the  most 
intense,  and  the  heaviest  that  will  be  applied  to  them ;  the 
oxide  of  iron  is  now  to  be  converted  into  peroxide,  or,  as  the 
men  around  the  kiln  would  call  it,  “  the  bricks  are  to  be 
painted  red.” 

Before  these  fires  are  given,  a  long  iron  rod,  a  little  longer 
than  one-half  the  width  of  the  kiln,  having  a  flat,  nearly 
circular  piece  at  the  one  end,  open  in  the  cen¬ 
tre,  and  having  an  iron  handle  at  the  other  end, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  34,  is  run  on  top  of  the  grates 
and  under  the  fires  to  loosen  them. 

The  instrument  is  called  a  “  moon,”  and  its 
object  is  to  enliven  the  fires  and  to  get  rid  of 
the  ashes,  as  well  as  to  break  up  the  clinkers. 

After  “running  the  moon”  into  all  the  arches 
of  the  kiln,  they  are  allowed  to  wait,  or  cool, 
for  twenty  minutes  or  so,  when  the  arch  first 
mooned  is  fired  from  both  sides  at  the  same 
time.  The  amount  of  coal  thrown  uniformly 
through  each  arch  varies  with  the  condition  of 
each  particular  arch.  An  arch  that  is  very  hot 
is  not  fired  so  hard  as  one  that  is  cooler. 

The  usual  amount  of  coal  thrown  into  each  arch  in  these 
settling  fires  is  about  from  thirty-two  to  forty  shovels  full, 


Fig.  34. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  147 


that  is,  from  sixteen  to  twenty  shovels  full  for  each  door  on 
each  side  of  the  kiln.  Before  these  fires  are  given,  the  doors 
in  the  ash-pits  are  closed,  and  kept  closed  for  about  five  min¬ 
utes  after  the  last  arch  is  fired;  any  “cold”  place  in  the  kiln 
can  now  be  detected  by  the  black  smoke  not  freely  issuing 
from  it,  which  can  be  seen  from  the  top  of  the  kiln.  A  few 
shovels  full  of  coal  are  now  thrown  into  the  arches  under 
these  places. 

The  doors  to  the  mouths  of  the  arches  are  closed  soon 
after  the  fires  are  crossed ;  if  an  arch  is  too  hot,  the  door  is 
opened  a  little,  which  is  called  “  cracking  the  door.” 

The  “  settling  fires”  are  given  to  the  kiln  about  every  two 
hours,  unless  it  happens  that  the  wind  and  rain  keep  the 
heat  down  in  the  arches,  in  which  cases  the  firing  is  delayed 
until  the  arches  are  cool  enough. 

After  the  kiln  is  “  burned  off,”  all  the  doors  and  all  the 
cracks  are  plastered,  and  the  kiln  remains  closed  for  five 
days. 

If  the  arches  are  fired  too  hot,  they  will  “  run”  or  stick 
together.  Some  kilns  have  very  high  stationary  roofs,  others 
have  movable  roofs  that  slide  on  railroad  tracks  from  one  kiln 
to  another;  but  the  majority  of  kilns  have  only  temporary 
roofs,  which  are  taken  off  when  the  kiln  gets  “  hot,”  which 
is,  as  has  been  stated,  about  the  fifth  day. 

When  the  kiln  of  bricks  has  settled  sufficiently,  that  is, 
sunk,  the  proper  amount  of  settling  is  known  only  by  expe¬ 
rience  with  the  clay ;  but  for  moderately  strong  clay,  it  is 
about  seven  and  one-half  per  cent,  of  the  height. 

For  instance,  say  a  kiln  of  bricks  is  made  of  moderately 


148 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


strong  clay,  and  set  forty-two  high  in  the  kiln,  and  the 
bricks  measure  four  and  one-half  inches  in  width,  the  total 
height  would  be  one  hundred  and  eighty-nine  inches,  and 
seven  and  one-half  per  cent,  would  be  a  little  over  fourteen 
inches.  Many  classes  of  weak  clays  for  the  same  sized  kiln 
could  be  settled  only  about  seven  inches,  and  still  make 
good  building  bricks. 

For  information  as  to  the  nature  of  clays  the  reader  is  re¬ 
ferred  to  Chapter  II.,  which  treats  of  the  different  varieties. 

The  kiln  which  has  been  described  in  burning  is  the  ordi¬ 
nary  open  Dutch  kiln.  I  selected  that  class  of  kilns  for 
describing  the  process  because  they  are,  unfortunately,  the 
ones  that  are  generally  used.  There  are  various  other 
kinds  of  kilns,  many  of  which  are  decided  improvements, 
especially  in  the  consumption  of  fuel. 

The  Hoffman,  and  many  of  the  other  annular  kilns  lose 
no  heat  and  are  very  effective ;  the  over  or  down  draught 
kiln  is  also  an  excellent  improvement. 

There  are  other  plans  for  burning  bricks,  such  as  by  hot 
air,  and  combinations  of  gas  and  air.  A  kiln  for  this  man¬ 
ner  of  burning  bricks  is  shown  and  described  in  Chapter 
VI.  Combinations  of  gas  and  gaseous  fuels,  superheated 
steam,  and  other  devices,  which,  although  they  are  all  good, 
require  a  highly  scientific  knowledge  of  heat,  its  mechanical 
actions,  and  many  other  things. 

There  has  never  been  in  the  past  four  thousand  years  and 
more,  such  a  thing  as  the  “  science  of  brick-making,”  and 
there  probably  will  never  be. 

The  laboring  men  who  produce  bricks  and  other  lower 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  149 


classes  of  pottery,  know  absolutely  nothing  of  the  chemical 
properties  of  clay ;  they  become  acquainted  with  its  physical 
peculiarities  through  working  in  it  for  a  lifetime. 

Can  a  person  at  the  present  time,  or  could  he  in  the  long 
past,  go  into  the  brick-yards  and  converse  with  the  laborers 
about  compounds  of  alumina  and  silica,  oxide,  peroxide,  and 
protoxide  of  iron]  Could  any  of  them  converse  intelligently 
concerning  the  process  of  converting  the  oxide  of  iron  into 
peroxide,  and  argue  the  question  of  the  application  of  terms'? 

Would  there  be  found  to-day  a  laborer  in  any  of  the 
lower  branches  of  pottery  who  could  explain  that  the  term 
peroxide  should  be  applied  to  the  oxide  of  a  given  base  that 
contains  the  greatest  quantity  of  oxygen,  and  that  the  per¬ 
oxide  of  iron  is  a  sesquioxide,  the  peroxide  of  tin  a  deut- 
oxide,  and  the  peroxide  of  gold  is  a  tritoxide]  The  term  is 
bad,  and  should  therefore  be  changed.  To  make  a  44  science 
of  brick-making”  many  technical  terms  now  very  inaccurate 
would  have  to  be  changed,  many  new  terms  would  have  to 
be  invented.  Are  we  to  have  laborers  who  can  do  this  ] 

Many  of  the  laborers  in  the  brick-yards  are  familiar  with 
much  of  the  above ;  but  it  is  with  the  external  manifesta¬ 
tions.  They  know  that  clay  and  sand  mixed  will  make  a 
brick,  and  if  the  brick  be  hard-burned  it  will  be  of  a  red  color. 

The  knowledge  possessed  by  laborers  in  the  production 
of  all  the  lower  classes  of  pottery  has  been  only  a  mechanical 
idea  of  the  materials  in  which  they  work,  and  it  will  prob¬ 
ably  be  so  always.  44The  poor  ye  have  with  you  always,” 
and  so  long  as  we  have  this  class,  we  shall  necessarily  have 
the  ignorant,  and  the  brick -yards  and  potteries  will  get 


150 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA 


their  full  share  of  the  latter  all  the  time,  which  will  be  a 
perpetual  bar  to  any  “science  of  brick-making,”  which  a 
little  book  published  in  England  about  fifty  years  ago  pre¬ 
dicted  there  would  be. 

The  amount  of  coal  required  to  burn  a  kiln  of  hand-made 
bricks  is  usually  about  one-quarter  of  a  ton  to  one  thousand 
bricks ;  but  for  dry-clay  bricks  a  larger  quantity  is  required, 
the  amount  being  about  one-third  of  a  ton  to  one  thousand 
bricks,  which  applies  in  both  cases  to  the  open  top  or  Dutch 
kiln,  but  when  more  economical  forms  of  kilns  are  employed 
the  consumption  of  fuel  is  much  less. 

The  centre  of  a  kiln  settles  first  in  burning,  after  which 
the  settling  fires  are  put  close  to  the  mouths  of  the  arches, 
no  coal  being  thrown  in  the  centre;  the  fires  in  the  mouths 
are  called  “head  fires.”  To  enliven  these  fires  a  “short 
moon”  is  used,  and  it  is  similar  to  the  long  moon  described 
before,  the  difference  being  only  in  the  length  of  the  handle. 

In  addition  to  the  long  and  short  moons,  another  tool, 
called  a  rake,  is  used;  it  is  as  long  as  the  long  moon,  and  has 
teeth  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  four  inches 
long,  set  into  a  back  of  iron  ten  inches  long,  two  inches 
wide,  and  three-quarters  thick. 

Soft  coal  increases  in  bulk  after  being  fired,  and  the  rake 
is  used  for  levelling  the  high  places  in  the  fire  of  the  arches 
of  the  kiln. 

A  sledge  hammer,  weighing  about  ten  pounds,  is  used  for 
breaking  up  the  large  lumps  of  coal,  fine  coal  being  used 
for  settling  the  kiln. 

For  each  kiln-hand  there  is  required  a  small  furnace 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  151 

shovel  or  “scoop,”  for  firing,  and  in  addition,  two  large  coal 
shovels  for  general  use  in  throwing  the  coal  into  the  kiln- 
shelter  and  spreading  it  along  in  front  of  the  arches. 

A  rough  ladder  for  climbing  about  the  kiln  is  also  neces¬ 
sary,  as  well  as  two  stout  water-buckets  in  which  to  carry 
the  mud,  or  “  daub,”  used  for  plastering  over  all  the  cracks 
which  appear  as  soon  as  the  kiln  commences  to  get  hot. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  place  a  barricade  of  boards  around 
the  kiln-shelters,  and  often  around  some  part  of  the  top  of 
the  kiln  during  periods  of  high  winds. 

The  time  of  the  men  around  the  burning  kiln  is  di¬ 
vided  into  periods  called  “watches;”  a  watch  is  two  days 
and  a  night,  that  is,  a  man  starts  to  work  on  a  kiln, 
say  at  six  o’clock  in  the  morning ;  he  stays  that  day  and 
night,  and  the  next  day  until  five  o’clock  in  the  afternoon, 
at  which  time  he  is  relieved.  After  resting  that  night,  he 
is  at  the  kiln  the  next  morning,  and  takes  another  watch  of 
two  days  and  a  night ;  the  time  made  at  night  is  counted  as 
a  day  extra. 

d.  Improvements  in  constructing  Permanent  Kilns. 

Mr.  Willis  N.  Graves,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  has  invented  a 
good  kiln  for  burning  bricks  thoroughly  and  economically, 
and  relates  to  those  kilns  which  have  an  up  and  down  draft, 
through  means  of  suitable  flues  connecting  with  the  same 
fire  chamber  or  chambers,  and  flues  beneath  a  perforated 
floor  communicating  with  the  main  chimney  and  outlets  on 
top  of  the  kiln,  the  flues  from  the  fire  chamber  or  chambers 


152 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


and  outlets  being  provided  with  suitable  dampers.  The  in¬ 
vention  consists,  first,  in  the  arrangement  of  the  flues  beneath 
the  floor  of  the  kiln ;  and,  secondly,  in  a  means  for  prevent¬ 
ing  the  products  of  combustion  taking  the  shortest  course 
from  the  tops  of  the  vertical  flues  to  the  flues  beneath  the 
floor. 

Figure  35  is  a  front  elevation  with  a  small  portion  of  the 
escape-flue  broken  away.  Fig.  36  is  a  vertical  section  taken 


pi «  3=; 


on  line  2  2,  Fig.  35,  showing  one  side  of  the  kiln  filled  with 
bricks,  and  the  other  side  empty.  Fig.  37  is  a  horizontal 
section  taken  on  line  3  3,  Fig.  36,  with  part  of  the  floor  of 
the  kiln  broken  away,  to  show  the  distributing-flues  beneath. 

D  represents  the  kiln  or  brick-chamber,  with  a  floor  E, 
with  passages  F,  forming  a  communication  with  flues  be¬ 
neath  the  floor.  The  floor  preferably  consists  of  tile  made 
from  fire-clay,  supported  on  walls  or  ribs  6r,  which  form  the 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  153 


flues  beneath  the  floor.  (See  Fig.  37.)  Every  fourth  wall, 
6r,  joins  with  the  sides  of  the  kiln-chamber,  forming  one 


main  flue  for  each  fire-chamber,  or  each  set  of  fire-chambers 
where  two  series  are  used,  as  shown,  and  these  main  flues 


154 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


are  subdivided  by  the  intermediate  walls  G ,  which  do  not 
quite  extend  to  the  sides  of  the  chamber,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
37,  thus  forming  small  distributing-flues  H  Ul  H 2  IP.  Of 
these  three  intermediate  walls,  the  outer  ones  have  inturned 
ends  J74,  so  that  as  much  heat  is  deflected  into  the  two  outer 
flues  H  H 3,  as  passes  directly  into  the  two  central  flues  H 1 
HI  We  have  shown  a  series  of  fire-chambers  /,  at  each 
side  of  the  kiln  as  the  preferred  form ;  but  one  series  only 
may  be  used. 

A  represents  the  outer  walls  of  the  kiln,  strengthened  by 
ties  B ,  as  usual,  and  having  the  customary  lining  (7,  of  fire- 

P  represents  the  grate-bars  of  the  fire-chambers,  and  J 
the  doors  thereto. 

K  represents  the  ash-pits. 

The  flues  H  Hl  H 2  H3  communicate  with  a  transverse 
flue  L ,  which  connects  with  the  chimney  or  uptake  M.  The 
communication  between  the  chimney  and  flue  L  is  regulated 
or  entirely  closed,  as  desired,  by  a  damper  N. 

Each  fire-chamber  is  provided  with  a  flue  0,  leading  to 
or  near  the  top  of  the  kiln-chamber.  These  flues  can  be 
closed  by  dampers  P. 

Q  are  chimneys  or  outlets  on  top  of  the  kiln,  preferably 
one  for  each  pair  of  fire-chambers,  where  two  series  are  used, 
and  these  outlets  can  be  regulated  or  closed  by  means  of 
dampers  B. 

The  operation  of  the  kiln  is  as  follows :  Supposing  it  is 
first  desired  to  have  a  downdraft,  or,  in  other  words,  have 
the  heat  and  products  of  combustion  pass  from  the  top  of 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  155 


the  kiln-chamber  down  through  the  mass  of  bricks,  the 
flues  H Hl  H 2  H 3  are  closed  by  pieces  of  bricks  and  refuse 
matter  thrown  in  through  the  fire-chambers,  the  dampers  P 
of  the  flues  0  opened,  the  dampers  R  of  the  chimneys  Q 

» 

are  closed,  and  the  damper  N  of  the  chimney  M  is  opened. 
The  fires  then  being  started,  the  heat  and  products  of  com¬ 
bustion  will  pass  up  through  the  flues  0 ,  down  through  the 
mass  of  bricks,  through  the  openings  F  into  the  flues  II Hl 
H2  H3,  and  from  thence  through  the  transverse  flue  L  to  the 
uptake  or  chimney  M,  as  shown  by  full  arrows,  Fig.  36. 
Then,  when  an  updraft  is  desired,  the  flues  H  H 1  H 2  H3  are 
opened  by  the  obstruction  being  removed,  as  by  means  of  an 
instrument  introduced  through  the  fire-chambers,  the  damp¬ 
ers  R  of  the  chimneys  Q  opened,  the  dampers  P  of  the  flues 
0  closed,  and  the  damper  N  of  the  chimney  M  closed.  The 
heat  and  products  of  combustion  then  pass  from  the  fire- 
chambers  to  the  distributing-flues  H  H 1  H2  H3,  through  the 
passages  or  openings  F,  and  up  through  the  mass  of  bricks, 
escaping  through  the  chimneys  Q.  The  draft  can  thus  be 
changed  with  very  little  trouble,  as  many  times  as  desired, 
during  the  burning  of  a  single  kiln  of  bricks.  The  updraft 
is  shown  by  dotted  arrows,  Fig.  36,  on  one  side  of  the  fig¬ 
ure,  the  downdraft  being  shown  on  the  other  side  by  full 
arrows,  as  stated. 

When  a  downdraft  is  used  it  is  important  that  some 
means  be  employed  to  prevent  the  heat  and  products  of 
combustion  from  taking  the  shortest  course  from  the  tops  of 
the  flues  0  to  the  flues  H  H 1  H2  FT3,  to  avoid  overburning 
the  bricks  next  to  the  flues  0,  and  to  cause  an  equal  burn- 


156 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


ing  of  the  bricks  throughout  the  kiln.  Furthermore,  as  the 
bricks  are  being  burned  they  shrink,  forming  a  flue  between 
them  and  the  sides  of  the  kiln-chamber,  down  which  the 
heat  and  products  of  combustion  would  be  drawn.  In  order 
to  avoid  these  difficulties  the  inventor  places  tiles,  of  suit¬ 
able  length,  with  their  lower  ends  resting  upon  the  upper 
edge  of  the  outer  walls  of  the  flues  0,  and  their  upper  ends 
resting  upon  the  bricks,  as  shown  in  Fig.  36.  Thus  the 
heat  and  products  of  combustion  are  compelled  to  pass  up 
over  the  tile  before  they  can  descend.  As  the  tile  would  not 
rest  well  if  placed  directly  upon  the  tops  of  the  semicircular 
flues  0,  the  inventor  first  places  blocks,  /S'1,  of  fire-clay  on 
top  of  the  flues,  covering  the  V-shaped  spaces  between  the 
flues,  as  shown  in  Fig.  37.  The  inner  corners  of  the  blocks 
are  cut  off,  concave  shape,  so  as  not  to  obstruct  the  openings 
of  the  flues.  A  common  brick  /S'2  can  be  placed  between  the 
ends'  of  the  blocks  /S'1  to  give  a  uniform  height  to  the  tile  S. 
One  of  the  blocks  S1  is  shown  removed  in  Fig.  37. 

T  represents  peep-holes.  (See  Fig.  36.) 

e.  Temporary  Bride-kiln. 

The  invention  shown  in  Figs.  38,  39,  40,  41,  and  42, 
which  is  that  of  Mr.  Win.  H.  Brush,  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  re¬ 
lates  more  particularly  to  temporary  brick-kilns  which  are 
set  up  wherever  the  green  bricks  are  required  to  be  burned, 
as  contradistinguished  from  permanent  kilns,  which  are  sta¬ 
tionary  structures,  and  provided  with  fixed  furnaces  of  vari¬ 
ous  constructions. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  157 


Heretofore  the  fuel  in  temporary  brick-kilns  or  clamps 
has  been  placed  within  the  arches  either  directly  upon  the 
ground,  when  wood  is  used,  or  upon  grates  extending 
through  the  entire  length  of  the  arches.  This  mode  of 
firing  is  objectionable,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  not  uncom¬ 
monly  very  difficult  to  regulate  the  fire  so  as  to  produce 
brick  of  uniform  color  and  strength. 

This  invention  consists,  first,  in  arranging  two  fire-grates 
within  each  arch,  one  near  each  end  thereof,  leaving  an 
intermediate  space  for  fuel  to  be  placed  directly  on  the 
ground,  so  that  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  in  the  space  be¬ 
tween  the  grates  can  be  regulated  by  the  fire  upon  the  lat¬ 
ter,  and  air-currents  above  and  below  the  same,  as  will  be 
more  fully  explained ;  second,  in  arranging  a  hinged  apron 
on  the  under  side  of  each  grate  for  the  purpose  of  prevent¬ 
ing  the  cold  air  from  entering  the  arch,  and  permitting  ac¬ 
cess  to  the  fuel  in  the  space  between  the  grates  when  re¬ 
quired  ;  third,  in  the  combination  of  the  grates,  fuel-space, 
hinged  aprons,  and  fire-doors,  provided  with  deflecting- 
plates,  whereby  the  fires  are  perfectly  controlled  and  readily 
directed  to  any  portion  of  the  arch  without  admitting  cold 
air  into  the  latter. 

In  the  drawings,  Fig.  38  is  a  sectional  elevation,  showing 
an  arch  of  a  brick-kiln  provided  with  these  improvements. 
Fig.  39  is  a  plan  view  of  two  arches.  Fig.  40  is  a  front 
view,  showing  one  arch  in  front  elevation,  and  one  in  cross- 
section.  Fig.  41  is  a  rear  view,  and  Fig.  42  a  horizontal 
section,  of  the  fire-door. 

A  represents  the  arch  of  green  bricks  set  up  in  the  usual 


158 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


manner.  B  are  the  frames  of  the  fire-doors,  arranged  in  the 
outer  walls  of  each  arch  in  the  ordinary  manner.  G  is  a 
fire-grate,  preferably  about  five  feet  in  length,  arranged 
within  each  arch  at  each  end  thereof,  as  clearly  shown  in 


FIG.  39 


FIG.  49 


the  drawing.  The  grates  G  are  supported  upon  bars  d  dl 
resting  upon  the  bricks  of  the  ash-pit  />,  which  latter  is  pref¬ 
erably  composed  of  old  or  burned  bricks.  E  is  an  inclined 
plate  or  apron  hinged  or  hung  to  the  rear  grate-bar  d1,  as 
clearly  represented  in  the  drawings,  and  made  of  the  same 
width  as  the  ash-pit,  so  as  to  prevent  the  cold  air  in  the  ash¬ 
pit  from  entering  the  arch,  except  through  the  burning  fuel 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  159 


upon  the  grate  G.  The  aprons  E  incline  toward  the  ash¬ 
pit  door  F \  so  as  to  cause  the  ashes  and  cinders  dropping 
upon  the  aprons  to  slide  forward  toward  the  ash-pit  door, 
and  the  hinging  of  the  aprons  to  the  grate-bars  enables  the 
front  ends  of  the  aprons  to  be  raised,  so  as  to  permit  access 
to  the  fuel  placed  upon  the  ground  between  the  grates  C  G. 

G  is  the  fire-door,  hinged  to  the  frame  B ,  and  provided 
with  vertical  slots  or  openings  g ,  which  are  opened  and 
closed  by  a  sliding  plate  g1,  in  the  manner  of  an  ordinary 
register. 

His  a,  protecting-plate,  arranged  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
fire-door  G ,  and  connected  thereto  by  stay-bolts  h  in  the 
usual  manner,  i  are  vertical  slots  or  openings,  arranged  in 
the  plate  H  in  such  manner  that  solid  portions  of  the  plate 
H  are  opposite  the  openings  g  of  the  fire-door  G,  and  the 
openings  i  opposite  the  solid  portions  of  the  fire-door.  This 
construction  of  the  protecting-plate  H  causes  the  air-currents 
entering  through  the  openings  g  of  the  fire-door  to  impinge 
against  the  solid  portion  of  the  plate  TT,  which,  being  kept 
at  a  very  high  temperature  by  the  fire  upon  the  grate,  heats 
the  air  before  it  enters  the  arch,  thereby  preventing  the 
bricks  from  becoming  checked. 

The  grates  G  may  be  charged  with  wood  or  coal,  and  the 
space  Gl  between  the  grates  is  preferably  charged  with 
wood  or  coke.  By  admitting  a  strong  air-current  through 
the  fire-doors  G ,  the  flame  and  hot  gases  are  driven  from  the 
grates  C  toward  the  centre  of  the  kiln,  and  the  combustion 
of  the  fuel  between  the  grates  is  accelerated.  Upon  closing 
the  damper  in  the  fire-door  G,  the  hot  gases  from  the  grates 


160  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

G  rise  perpendicularly  through  the  arch,  and  the  combus¬ 
tion  of  the  fuel  between  the  grates  is  retarded.  Upon  rais¬ 
ing  the  ends  of  the  aprons  F,  the  ashes  can  be  raked  out 
from  the  space  between  the  grates,  and  new  fuel  can  be 
supplied  thereto  without  interfering  with  the  fuel  upon 
them,  while,  by  supporting  the  front  ends  of  the  aprons  in 
a  greater  or  less  elevated  position,  the  combustion  of  the  fuel 
in  the  space  between  the  grates  can  be  regulated  without 
affecting  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  upon  the  grates. 

It  is  obvious  from  the  foregoing  that  these  improvements, 
which  are  readily  and  cheaply  applied  to  kilns  of  ordinary 
construction,  give  a  perfect  control  over  the  fires  in  all  parts 
of  the  arch,  thereby  enabling  the  bricks  to  be  burned  to 
a  uniform  color  and  strength,  and  preventing  loss  from 
checked  bricks. 

The  entire  fire-surface  being  arranged  within  the  arch  the 
heat  developed  by  the  fuel  is  fully  utilized,  and  loss  from 
radiation,  while  not  of  course  fully  prevented,  is  to  a  great 
extent  curtailed. 

Section  VII.  Improvements  in  Kiln  Roofs. 

The  kiln  roof  shown  in  Figs.  43,  44,  and  45  is  the  inven¬ 
tion  of  Mr.  Thos.  F.  Adams,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  it  is 
in  use  at  the  works  of  the  Peerless  Brick  Company  in  that 
city,  which  company  controls  the  patent  right. 

The  roof  is  permanent  on  the  kiln,  and  enables  the 
burner  to  manage  the  direction  of  the  heat,  and  by  closing 
and  opening  the  doors  he  can  create  a  draft  at  any  part  of 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  161 


the  kiln  he  may  desire.  By  having  the  roof  permanent,  a 
great  saving  of  labor  in  taking  off  and  putting  on  an  ordi¬ 
nary  wooden  roof  is  effected,  and  the  waste  incident  to  the 
repeated  handling  of  the  boards  is  obviated.  It  renders 
the  brick-maker  independent  of  the  weather,  as  his  kiln  is 
covered  at  all  times,  and  the  doors  can  be  shut  down  more 
or  less  during  a  storm.  It  saves  fuel,  as  the  heat  cannot 
escape  so  rapidly,  and  the  proportion  of  hard-burned  brick 
is  largely  increased,  and  a  much  greater  uniformity  of  color 
throughout  is  secured. 

Fig.  43  is  an  end  elevation  of  a  brick-kiln  embodying  this 


Fig.  43 


invention.  Fig.  44  is  a  transverse  vertical  section  of  the 
same.  Fig.  45  is  a  detail  view  of  a  part  thereof. 

A  represents  the  ordinary  frame-work  of  a  brick-kiln, 

which  is  boarded  up  to  a  certain  height.  At  each  end  are 
11 


162 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


then  applied  sheets  B  B ,  of  iron,  to  complete  the  gable,  and 
in  the  same  is  made  a  door  (7,  which  is  hinged  at  its  upper 
end,  and  provided  with  a  chain  a,  passing  over  a  pulley  b , 
at  the  top  of  the  frame,  so  that  the  door  can  be  opened 
more  or  less  from  the  ground,  as  may  be  desired. 


Fie.  44 


To  the  frame-work  A  are  connected  suitable  upright  truss- 
frames  E  E ,  standing  above  the  kiln  on  each  side,  and  to 
these  are  secured  rafters  D  D  on  each  side,  the  rafters  meet¬ 
ing  at  the  top  in  the  centre,  and  sloping  downward  on  each 
side  below  the  truss-frames. 

The  roof  of  the  kiln  is  composed  of  iron  sheets  F  F \ 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICKS  BY  THE  HAND  PROCESS.  163 


which  are  suspended  from  the  rafters  by  hooks  or  stirrups 
d  d ,  passing  through  the  sheets  and  fastening  in  rods  i, 
running  from  the  top  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  roof  on  each 
side. 

At  the  top,  in  the  roof  thus  formed,  are  made  hinged 
doors  G  G,  to  be  opened  more  or  less,  as  occasion  may 
require. 

The  iron  roof  F  is  suspended  about  an  inch  below  the 
rafters,  so  as  to  prevent  any  liability  of  the  wood  catching 
fire. 


\ 


164 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


CHAPTER  V. 

BRICK-MACHINES. 

The  Manufacture  of  Bricks  hy  the  Machine  Process. 

The  enormous  demand  for  bricks,  in  highly  civilized  coun¬ 
tries,  has  vastly  stimulated  the  invention  of  all  classes  of 
machinery  to  save  labor,  and  to  produce  quickly  large  quan¬ 
tities  of  moulded  bricks  from  crude  clay,  in  all  conditions  of 
plasticity,  as  well  as  in  all  stages  of  dryness. 

All  brick-machines  may  be  divided  into  two  classes :  The 
first  embracing  those  that  employ  moulds,  into  which  to 
force  the  clay  to  a  shape ;  the  second  class  being  those  ma¬ 
chines  which  shape  the  plastic  clay  by  forcing  it  through  an 
opening  or  die  in  the  pug-mill,  and  in  a  continuous  string, 
which  is  afterwards  cut  into  bricks  of  the  required  size,  either 
by  a  revolving  knife,  or  by  wires  attached  to  a  frame. 

To  the  first  class  belong  all  dry  and  moist-clay  machines, 
as  well  as  the  slush-machines;  to  the  second  class  belong 
only  the  wet  or  plastic-clay  machines,  as  dry,  moist,  and 
slush-clay  could  not  hold  a  good  form  after  passing  through 
the  opening  or  die,  and  during  the  process  of  cutting  them 
into  shape. 

The  first  class  includes  a  very  large  number  and  great 
variety  of  machines,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  dry-clay 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


165 


machines,  they  are  a  valuable  line  of  inventions.  The  sec¬ 
ond  class  comprises  but  few,  comparatively,  in  either  number 
or  variety  of  styles. 

The  stock  produced  by  the  first  class  of  machines  is  usu¬ 
ally  better  formed,  cheaper,  and  suitable  for  architectural 
constructions ;  but  while  the  bricks  produced  by  the  second 
class  may  not  be  so  regular  in  shape,  nor  quite  so  cheaply 
made,  they  are  at  times  preferable  for  purposes  of  engi¬ 
neering  constructions,  and  are  at  all  times  desirable  for 
building. 

For  instance,  take  the  bricks  made  from  dried  clay, 
burned  to  the  very  hardest  state,  and  pave  a  section  of  the 
invert  or  bottom  of  a  sewer,  through  which  pass  quantities 
of  sand  or  gravel,  and  then  pave  an  adjoining  section  with 
bricks  made  by  one  of  the  second  class  of  machines,  and 
which  have  been  burned  in  the  same  kiln  with  the  first 
named  bricks.  What  will  be  the  result  ?  The  first  section 
of  the  sewer  bottom  will,  in  a  few  months,  be  completely 
cut  out,  and  the  second  will  stay  for  many  years  in  almost  as 
good  a  condition  as  when  first  laid. 

Many  large  and  costly  works  have  been  greatly  injured 
through  the  employment  of  bricks  for  sewer  inverts  made 
by  dry-clay  machines. 

A  case  now  comes  to  mind  in  which  a  large  sewer,  20  feet 
in  diameter,  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  was  built  of  bricks  made 
by  dry-clay  machines,  and  the  material  was  completely  cut 
out  of  the  centre  of  the  invert,  and  thereby  let  fall  a  section 
of  more  than  seven  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  causing  the 
utter  destruction  of  that  much  of  the  work. 


166 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


The  first  class  of  machines  may  be  termed  compressive, 
and  the  second  class  expressive  machines.  The  pressure  in 
the  first  class  is  given  either  by  the  cam,  the  toggle-joint,  the 
combination  of  inclined  plane  and  press-wheel,  or  the  screw; 
in  the  second  class,  the  clay  is  usually  tempered  and  packed 
by  a  screw,  and  expressed  by  the  piston,  screw,  or  rollers. 

The  U.  S.  Patent  Office  classifies  all  brick  and  tile  ma¬ 
chines  as  either  reciprocating  or  rotary  machines,  and  manu¬ 
facturers  as  well  as  engineers  who  operate  them  often  classify 
them  as  either  upright  or  horizontal  machines. 

There  is  too  much  ignorance  displayed  in  regard  to  the 
material  produced  by  this  line  of  inventions,  and  which 
enters  so  largely  into  the  construction  of  buildings,  and  this 
lack  of  knowledge  is  often  shown  by  those  who  ought  to 
know  better. 

In  the  desire  to  get  up  a  showy  house,  “  something  that 
will  take,  you  know,”  mistakes  are  too  often  made,  and 
which  are  usually  paid  for  by  the  loss  of  health,  and  some¬ 
times  by  the  sacrifice  of  life.  Is  it  difficult  to  call  to  mind 
houses  that  people  call  “  unlucky  places,”  in  which  an  un¬ 
usual  number  of  persons  die  X 

These  “  unlucky  places”  are  for  the  most  part  nothing 
more  nor  less  than  damp  houses,  resulting  oftentimes  from 
the  employment  of  porous  bricks  in  the  construction  of  the 
walls. 

A  pile  of  bricks  now  presents  itself  to  my  mind  which 
were  hacked  about  twelve  feet  high,  and  placed  on  an  eleva¬ 
tion  and  covered  with  a  close,  tight  roof,  through  which 
no  water  could  get  to  them.  But  the  bricks  commenced 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


167 


to  get  wet  from  the  bottom,  which  ascended  gradually  to  the 
top  of  the  pile,  and  finally  every  brick  was  as  wet  as  if  it 
had  been  laid  in  water  and  soaked. 

Bricks  absorbing  more  than  eight  ounces  of  water  should 
not  be  allowed  in  the  foundations  or  exposed  walls  of  dwell¬ 
ings.  A  simple  way  to  test  the  absorption  is  to  weigh  the 
brick,  and  then  place  it  in  a  bucket  of  water  for  five  minutes 
or  so;  if  it  weighs  more  than  eight  ounces  over  its  first 
weight,  discretion  dictates  its  rejection  for  the  two  pur¬ 
poses  named.  This  test  applies  only  to  hard-burned  bricks, 
not  to  salmon  stock. 

Architects  should  be  aware  also  of  the  acoustic  effects 
which  dampness  of  walls  has  upon  public  buildings  by 
conducing  to  a  very  great  extent  to  reverberation,  which 
confuses  sound. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  buildings  to  be  hastily  con¬ 
structed,  and  the  internal  coats  of  plastering  put  on  one 
over  the  other  in  rapid  succession,  and  at  once  occupied  for 
public  purposes. 

But  for  many  months  they  fail  to  give  satisfaction  to  the 
extent  that  had  been  hoped  from  the  pains  which  had  been 
taken  to  make  them  acoustically  good ;  although  gradually, 
as  the  walls  part  with  their  dampness,  acoustic  defects  dis¬ 
appear. 

It  is  of  great  importance  that  bricks  used  in  such  walls  be 
not  so  porous  as  to  constantly  absorb  moisture,  and  for  a 
long  period,  or  permanently,  retard  the  drying  out  of  the 
walls,  or  halls  for  public  speaking  or  for  music.  While  they 
may  be  good  in  other  respects  they  may  fail  in  this. 


168 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


In  this  matter  architects  owe  a  duty  to  themselves  no 
less  than  to  their  clients  and  the  public.  It  is  not  the 
province  of  this  volume  to  attempt  an  explanation  of  this 
phenomena,  which  is  a  matter  of  common  observation. 

In  newly  completed  buildings  a  little  drapery  hung  up  for 
a  few  months  may  often  retard  reverberation  and  be  a  great 
aid ;  it  can  easily  be  removed  when  the  moisture  disappears 
from  the  walls,  and  the  acoustic  properties  are  assured. 

Since  dry  structures  cannot  be  built  with  bricks  that  are 
very  absorbent,  and  as  the  extent  to  which  bricks  absorb 
water  is  so  important,  it  is  worth  while  to  give  a  little  atten¬ 
tion  to  this  subject  in  the  different  classes  of  brick-machines. 

The  bricks  produced  by  all  dry -clay  machines  absorb 
much  more  water  than  do  those  produced  by  any  of  the 
other  machines. 

It  is  not  the  intention  in  this  work  to  canvass  and  give 
the  merits  or  demerits  of  any  particular  machine;  but  by 
saying  what  has  just  preceded,  merely  to  hint  at  a  few  of  the 
considerations  which  should  govern  those  who  part  with 
their  money  for  the  purchase  of  either  the  stock  produced, 
or  for  a  machine  itself. 

The  process  of  manufacturing  bricks  by  machinery  may 
he  divided  into  five  stages,  viz : — 

Preparation  of  the  clay. 

Shaping  the  brick. 

Drying. 

Setting. 

Burning. 

The  clay  is  not  dug  in  the  winter  and  exposed  as  for 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


169 


hand-made  bricks ;  but  for  dry  and  damp-clay  machines  the 
clay  is  taken  directly  from  the  bank,  and  for  dry-clay  ma¬ 
chines  is  hauled  under  large  sheds  and  allowed  to  dry ;  but 
for  the  damp-clay  machines  it  is  hauled  directly  to  the  mill 
which  is  to  prepare  it  for  the  brick-machine.  The  differ¬ 
ence  between  dry  and  damp-clay  bricks  is  in  the  condition 
of  the  clay  when  it  is  granulated  and  moulded. 

It  requires  a  much  stronger  machine  and  greater  power 
to  shape  the  dried  clay  into  bricks  than  it  does  for  the  damp- 
clay,  as  the  pressure  must  be  tremendous  in  the  first  case, 
and  it  need  be  but  normal  in  the  second  condition,  provided 
the  pressure  is  exerted  while  the  mould-bed  is  at  rest. 

Disintegrating  mills  for  clay  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  first  being  those  which  granulate  and  sieve  the 
clay  at  the  same  time;  and  the  second  class  being  those 
which  granulate  without  sieving.  Sometimes  there  is  a 
combination  of  the  whole  of  the  latter  class  with  some  por¬ 
tion  of  a  mill  of  the  first  class ;  but  the  result  of  the  combi¬ 
nation  is  usually  a  mill  of  the  first  class. 

A  combination  of  the  two  principles  is  made  when  the 
rolls  are  placed  in  position  above  the  grates  of  the  mill,  and 
instead  of  the  clay  being  pulverized  and  forced  through  the 
grates  by  a  heavy  revolving  roller,  the  clay  passes  through 
the  elevated  and  stationary  rolls,  falls  upon  the  fixed  grates, 
and  is  agitated  and  forced  through  them  by  revolving  clay- 
ploughs,  drags,  and  other  contrivances. 

Sometimes,  as  is  shown  by  the  drawings  of  the  clay-pul¬ 
verizing  machine,  which  will  be  immediately  described,  the 
clay  passes  through  the  rolls  and  the  grates  are  made  to 


170 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


revolve,  and  the  clay  falling  upon  them  and  coming  in  con¬ 
tact  with  the  fixed  irons  extending  over  the  grates,  is  forced 
or  sieved  through  them. 

The  machine  shown  in  Figs.  46,  47,  48,  and  49  is  in 
daily  use  in  a  large  brick-yard  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  is 
the  invention  of  a  practical  brick-maker  of  that  place,  and  it 

FIG’.  46 


is  for  pulverizing  clay  for  making  brick  of  the  kind  known 
as  “  damp-clay,”  but  by  a  slight  modification,  which  will  be 
described,  it  may  be  made  to  temper  the  clay  after  it  has 
been  pulverized.  * 

In  Fig.  47  the  teeth  of  the  revolving  grate  E1'  are  shown 
too  close  to  the  grates,  and  it  was  found  that  they  were 
liable  to  clog  with  the  clay  from  the  grates ;  but  this  was 
obviated  by  increasing  by  six  inches  the  height  of  the  rim 
E2  over  that  shown  in  the  drawings. 

Figure  46  represents  a  plan  or  top  view  of  the  machine ; 
Fig.  47  a  front  elevation ;  Fig.  48  an  end  elevation ;  Fig. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


171 


49  a  sectional  view  of  the  crushing-rollers  and  device  for 
removing  gravel-stones  from  the  same. 

A  is  a  box  or  frame  upon  which  the  main  portion  of  the 
machinery  is  mounted.  B  and  Bx  are  two  cast-iron  crushing- 
rollers,  made  to  rotate  toward  each  other  by  gear-wheels  b  b. 


hg47 

u  d  , 


The  machine  may  be  driven  by  any  suitable  power  applied 

to  the  crank-wheel  G  on  the  shaft  of  roller  B.  D  is  a 

♦ 

pointed  scraper  for  removing  stones  which  are  too  large  to 
pass  through  the  crushing-rollers.  It  is  suspended  from 
friction-wheels  d  d ,  which  ride  upon  a  horizontal  rod  or  bar, 
d1,  above  the  crushing-rollers ;  its  shank  e  passes  between 


172  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

two  guiding  and  steadying  rods  e1  e1,  and  it  is  moved  back 
and  forth  by  the  handle  /  to  remove  the  stones  and  deposit 
them  in  a  spout  g. 


E  is  a  horizontally-revolving  grate,  consisting  of  a  very 
strong  wheel,  with  radial  arms  supporting  the  circular  cog- 
gear  E1  and  the  grate,  made  in  sections,  one  section  of 
which,  e2,  is  shown  in  the  drawing.  The  interstices  between 
the  grate-bars  the  inventor  prefers  to  have  about  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  wide.  F  and  Fl  are  two  cast-iron  rollers  loosely 
mounted  on  a  shaft  F 2,  and  lying  upon  the  revolving  grate. 


» 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


173 


These  rollers  have  a  play  of  about  one  inch  on  their  shaft, 
which  allows  them  to  rise  and  fall  accordingly  as  the  quan¬ 
tity  of  clay  under  them  may  vary.  On  the  end  opposite  to 
the  power-wheel  G  of  the  shaft  of  roller  B ,  is  mounted  a 
band-wheel  (71,  with  a  band  c1,  passing  around  this  wheel, 
and  also  around  a  band-wheel  /*,  on  the  shaft  F 2,  rotates 
the  shaft,  and  the  pinion-wheel  i  mounted  thereon,  and  en¬ 
gaging  with  the  circular  cog-gear  Fl  of  the  revolving  grate, 
rotates  the  grate.  On  the  opposite  end  of  shaft  F 2  is 
mounted  another  band- wheel  j\  and  a  band  j1,  passing 
around  the  wheel,  and  also  around  a  small  pulley-wheel  /*, 
on  shaft  1c,  rotates  the  shaft  and  the  bevel-wheel  n  mounted 
on  its  inner  end.  This  bevel-wheel  n,  engaging  with  a  sim¬ 
ilar  bevel -wheel  n1,  on  a  vertical  shaft  m,  rotates  the  latter 
rapidly.  This  shaft  m  is  provided  with  a  number  of  pro¬ 
jecting  arms  m\  which  are  inclosed  in  a  cylinder  M  (shown 
in  vertical  section,  Fig.  47),  which  is  called  the  “  temper- 
cylinder.”  H  is  a  hopper  for  conducting  the  clay,  as  it  falls 
through  the  revolving  grate,  down  into  the  temper-cylinder. 
S  is  a  pipe  for  conducting  steam  into  the  lower  part  of  the 
temper-cylinder,  and  w  is  a  pipe  for  conveying  water  into 
the  upper  part  of  the  same  when  desired.  The  rollers  B 
and  B1,  and  F  and  Fl ,  are  each  provided  with  stationary 
knife-scrapers  (not  shown  in  the  drawings),  to  clear  them  of 
adhering  clay.  The  rollers  B  and  Bl  should  ordinarily  be 
adjusted  so  as  to  leave  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  space 
between  them,  but  by  means  of  adjusting  screws  t  t  said 
roller  B  may  be  slightly  moved  to  and  from  its  fellow  i?1. 

The  inventor  does  not  desire  to  limit  himself  to  the  exact 


174 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


proportions  shown  in  the  drawings,  nor  to  any  specified  di¬ 
mensions  or  weight  of  any  of  the  parts  ;  but  I  will  here  state 
what  are  regarded  as  about  the  proper  dimensions  and  weight 
for  the  principal  parts,  viz :  Crushing  rollers  from  one  and 
a  half  to  two  feet  in  diameter ;  and  they  may  be  both  of  a 
size,  or  one  may  be  somewhat  larger  than  the  other,  as 
shown  in  the  drawings.  They  may  be  geared  to  revolve  at 
the  same  velocity,  or  at  different  velocities.  These  rollers 
should  be  of  the  hardest,  chilled  cast-iron.  The  rollers  F  Fl 
may  be  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  feet  in  diameter,  and 
should  weigh  from  four  hundred  to  five  hundred  pounds 
each.  They  should  also  be  made  of  chilled  cast-iron.  The 
annular  grate  should  be  about  three  feet  in  width  from  the 
centre  pedestal  to  the  circular  gear,  and  the  rollers  F  F1  of 
corresponding  length.  The  temper-cylinder  M  may  be  about 
three  feet  in  diameter,  and  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  feet 
in  depth. 

R  is  a  serrated  scraper  or  agitator  to  loosen  up  the  clay 
upon  the  grate.  It  is  suspended  from  the  shaft  P1,  which 
turns  upon  journals,  thus  operating  as  a  hinge.  The  points 
of  the  teeth  r  must  be  bent  upward,  so  that  they  will  not 
catch  upon  the  grate-bars.  One  or  more  such  rakes  may  be 
employed.  P  is  a  hopper,  into  which  the  clay  is  placed,  to 
be  fed  to  the  crushing  rollers  B  P1. 

The  operation  is  as  follows :  The  clay,  as  it  is  dug  from 
the  bank,  is  deposited  in  the  hopper  P,  whence  it  passes 
through  the  rollers  B  P1,  becoming  partially  pulverized,  and 
falls  upon  the  revolving  grate,  where  it  is  further  crushed 
and  pulverized  by  the  rollers  F  F\  and  is  forced  through 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


175 


the  grate  into  the  hopper  H,  and  conducted  thence  to  the 
temper-cylinder  M,  where  it  is  further  operated  upon  by  the 
revolving  arms  of  the  shaft  m,  and  finally  drops  out  of  the 
open  bottom  of  the  cylinder  in  proper  condition  for  making 
bricks. 

A  jet  of  steam  introduced  through  the  pipe  /S  moistens 
the  clay  slightly,  so  that  it  will  the  better  adhere  when  sub¬ 
jected  to  pressure  in  the  moulds.  If  it  is  desired  to  tem¬ 
per  the  clay,  as  well  as  to  pulverize  it,  a  bottom  must  be 
applied  to  the  temper-cylinder  M,  having  an  opening  at  one 
side  for  the  tempered  clay  to  escape,  and  instead  of  intro¬ 
ducing  steam  through  the  pipe  s,  water  must  be  introduced 
through  the  pipe  w.  A  movable  bottom  may  be  provided, 
which  can  be  applied  to  the  cylinder  M,  and  fastened  thereto 
by  screws  or  clamps,  when  it  is  desired  to  temper  the  clay. 

In  reducing  hard  marls  or  rough  strong  clays,  such  as  fire¬ 
clays,  it  is  common  to  employ  iron  rolls,  composed  of  sepa¬ 
rate  pairs  of  cylinders,  placed  one  above  the  other,  and  set  at 
different  openings,  through  which  the  clay  passes,  and  these 
mills,  which  are  also  very  valuable  for  disintegrating  common 
and  pressed  brick  clays,  will  be  described  in  Chapter  VI. 

The  clay  having  been  properly  granulated,  it  is  now  in  a 
condition  to  be  fed  to  the  machine,  and  be  shaped  into  bricks. 

Very  often  the  clay  does  not  fall  directly  into  the  machine, 
but  drops  below  the  mill,  and  is  carried  to  a  point  above  the 
brick-machine,  when  it  is  then  dropped  into  the  machine 
through  a  chute.  The  contrivance  used  to  perform  this  work 
is  called  an  elevator,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  made  de¬ 
pends  greatly  upon  the  quantity  of  clay  that  it  is  to  elevate. 


176 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


A  good  elevator  for  clay,  when  the  quantity  of  bricks  pro¬ 
duced  does  not  exceed  thirty-five  thousand  in  a  day  of  ten 
hours,  is  made  by  using  double-ply  best  oak-tanned  leather 
belting,  6  inches  wide,  to  which  the  buckets  for  raising  the 
clay  are  riveted,  the  rivets  passing  through  the  bucket  and 
belt,  and  also  through  a  piece  of  light  hoop-iron  one  inch 
wide  on  the  opposite  side  to  the  bucket,  and  well  riveted. 

The  buckets  should  be  strongly  made  of  one-eighth  inch 
sheet-iron  riveted  at  the  ends.  These  buckets  are  wedge- 
shape,  six  inches  deep,  and  seven  inches  wide  at  the  top. 
The  iron  of  which  they  are  composed  should  be  in  one  piece. 

Fig.  50  shows  an  elevator  belt  conveying  the  prepared 
clay  from  a  pair  of  rolls  to  the  brick-machine,  the  clay  fall¬ 
ing  from  the  mill  into  the  buckets  through  a  chute.  When 
the  quantity  of  clay  to  be  elevated  is  for  machines  producing 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  thousand  bricks  daily,  the  buckets 
are  made  of  stout  boiler  iron,  and  are  eighteen  inches  long, 
and  nine  inches  wide  at  the  top. 

They  are  strongly  attached  to  an  open  link  chain,  which 
is  spaced  so  as  to  work  the  links  over  a  cogged  pulley  at  the 
top  and  the  bottom  of  the  elevator. 

The  links  of  the  chain  are  rectangular,  and  each  cross¬ 
bar  is  covered  with  a  hollow  roller,  in  order  to  lessen  the 
friction. 

These  elevators  are  very  efficient ;  one  of  them  at  work 
in  a  large  brick-yard  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  elevates  the 
crude  clay  to  the  mill,  which  prepares  the  material  for  about 
one  hundred  thousand  bricks  daily. 

The  clay  in  this  yard,  before  being  fed  to  the  machine, 
passes  through  a  pair  of  rollers,  then  through  a  mill,  in 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


177 


which  a  large  number  of  steel  teeth  are  fastened  into  two 
heavy  toothed,  circular,  cast-iron  platforms,  the  teeth  of 
which  interchange  and  revolve  in  opposite  directions.  The 
mill  works  the  clay  in  a  very  damp  condition,  and  the  work 
of  preparing  it  is  most  thoroughly  done. 

It  would  not  be  possible  to  give  a  detailed  description  of 
all  the  different  kinds  of  brick-machines  now  at  work  satis¬ 
factorily  in  this  country  and  in  Europe ;  but  the  machines 
which  are  selected  for  explaining  the  modes  of  converting 
clay  into  bricks,  although  no  intention  is  meant  to  give 
them  prominence  over  a  large  number  of  equally  good  in¬ 
ventions,  are  excellent  examples  of  the  intelligent  inventive 
genius  of  the  age. 

The  entire  principle  of  manufacturing  bricks  from  dried 
clay  is  an  error.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  not  possible  to  con¬ 
struct  a  dry-clay  machine  that  will  exert  the  tremendous 
pressure  necessary  to  be  continually  given,  and  last  for  any 
reasonable  length  of  time,  without  making  it  not  only 
clumsy,  but  so  expensive  as  to  be  entirely  out  of  all  propor¬ 
tion  to  any  possible  saving  that  could  be  made  from  this 
manner  of  forming  the  bricks.  The  time  lost  in  “  break¬ 
downs”  and  increased  cost  of  repairs  necessary  for  this  class 
of  machines,  as  well  as  in  the  burning  of  the  bricks  thus 
made,  is  also  against  the  dry  clay  system. 

It  is  impossible  to  fill  the  charge-boxes,  or  as  they  are 
also  termed,  the  “filler-boxes,”  with  any  degree  of  regularity 
in  dry-clay  machines,  and  when  graduating  measures  are 
used  the  same  difficulty  is  met.  The  moulds  depend  upon 

the  “  filler-boxes”  for  their  charge  of  clay,  and  it  not  being 
12 


178 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


uniformly  filled  into  them  they  cannot  correct  it  in  the 
moulds.  Should  the  moulds  be  grouped  together,  then  the 
work  of  filling  them  regularly  becomes  an  impossibility; 
hence  those  receiving  the  least  quantity  of  clay  receive  also 
the  least  amount  of  pressure,  and  the  clay  is  but  partially 
developed  into  bricks.  The  stock  may  have  a  uniform  ap¬ 
pearance  as  to  density  when  it  comes  from  the  machine,  and 
have  a  clean,  attractive  appearance ;  but  the  bricks  are  nei¬ 
ther  used,  nor  are  they  sold  in  this  condition ;  they  must  be 
burned.  Let  us  take  a  look  at  them  after  they  have  passed 
through  the  kiln ;  their  whole  appearance  has  changed ; 
the  bricks,  which  before  seemed  to  be  close  and  strong,  are 
now  open  and  weak,  the  separation  between  the  particles  of 
clay  is  plainly  observable,  and  if  two  such  bricks  are  struck 
together  the  sound  will  resemble  the  unringing  one  of  two 
soda  crackers  being  hit  one  upon  the  other.  The  moisture 
being  extracted  from  the  clay,  and  the  bricks  having  been 
slighted  in  the  pressure,  complete  vitrification  or  fusion  of 
the  particles  cannot  take  place  in  the  process  of  burning, 
and  the  result  is  that  the  bricks  made  in  this  way  are  very 
porous,  absorb  water  in  great  quantities,  and  upon  exposure 
readily  disintegrate  with  the  action  of  the  elements.  Hav¬ 
ing  experimented  largely  with  dry-clay  machines,  but  know¬ 
ing  “  their  weakness,  their  evil  behavior,”  it  is  not  possible 
for  me  to  say  one  wrord  in  their  favor,  and  I  shall  pass  them 
by  without  description.  The  machines  which  we  shall  now 
consider  are  those  which  accept  and  work  the  clay  in  a  moist 
condition. 

The  machines  which  are  portrayed  in  Figs.  51  and  52 


R 


‘  • 


* 


rick  Machine. — Page  178. 


Fia.  52.  No.  2  Machine,  for  Making  and  Re-pressing  Front  Brick,  and 

Ornamental  Brick. — Page  179. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


179 


occupy  a  medium  position  between  the  dry-clay  machines 
and  the  tempered-clay  machines.  These  machines  will  re¬ 
ceive  the  clay  in  a  stiff  state,  containing  about  four  hun¬ 
dred  pounds  of  water  to  the  thousand  bricks  to  be  evapo¬ 
rated,  and  manufacture  it  into  a  good  quality  of  building- 
bricks.  The  principle  of  applying  the  pressure  is  by  the 
cam ;  but  the  mechanical  plan  and  construction  of  these 
machines  is  such  that  the  heavy  developing  pressures  take 
place  while  the  mould  table  is  at  rest.  The  power  required 
to  operate  them  is  normal ;  the  strain,  wear,  tear,  breakage, 
and  propelling  power  are  below  the  average.  The  clay  is 
uniformly  fed  to  the  machines,  and  receiving  the  pressure  in 
a  moist  condition  the  bond  between  the  particles  is  good, 
and  as  these  particles  are  drawn  closer  in  the  fusion  or 
burning  the  bricks  are  not  very  porous,  but  are  strong  and 
absorb  but  little  moisture. 

The  machine  shown  in  Fig.  51  is  the  Gregg  triple  pressure 
brick-machine ;  it  has  a  capacity  of  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  thousand  bricks  per  day,  of  ten  hours,  which  depends 
upon  the  power  and  the  speed  at  which  it  is  run.  The 
weight  of  this  machine  is  about  five  tons,  the  cost  is  five 
thousand  dollars,  and  the  cost  of  the  disintegrating  mill, 
which  prepares  the  clay  for  the  machine,  is  about  one 
thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars. 

The  power  required  to  run  both  the  machine  and  the  mill 
is  thirty-five  horse. 

The  machine  shown  in  Fig.  52  is  by  the  same  maker  as 
that  shown  in  Fig.  51 ;  it  is  called  the  No.  2,  and  can  be 
used  for  making  from  eight  to  ten  thousand  common  bricks 


180 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


per  day  of  ten  hours ;  it  gives  two  pressures  to  each  brick, 
and  can  be  used  also  for  making  front  and  ornamental  bricks. 
The  cost  of  this  machine  is  one  thousand  five  hundred 
dollars ;  that  of  the  smaller  disintegrating  mill  used  with 
this  machine  is  five  hundred  dollars.  The  weight  of  the 
brick-machine  is  about  one  ton,  and  the  power  required  to 
run  it  and  the  disintegrating  mill  is  twelve  horse. 

In  small  works  the  bricks  made  by  machinery  are  usually 
placed  upon  a  wheelbarrow,  taken  to  the  shed,  and  hacked, 
and,  when  dry,  are  again  placed  upon  the  barrow,  and 
wheeled  to  the  kiln. 

A  great  saving  is  made  by  off-bearing  the  bricks  upon 
low  iron  cars,  with  perforated  bottoms,  which  are  easily  and 
rapidly  moved  upon  tracks  to  the  drying-room,  and  from 
thence  to  the  kiln. 

In  all  large  works  this  is  the  method  employed,  as  it  saves 
a  very  great  expense  for  labor,  and  the  green  bricks  are  not 
so  liable  to  be  injured  or  broken,  and  in  the  kiln  they  hold 
a  better  shape,  after  being  thus  dried. 

In  some  works  the  bricks  are  hacked  edgewise  four 
courses  high,  each  course  containing  three  rows  of  fifty 
bricks,  thus  making  six  hundred  bricks  for  each  car;  but  un¬ 
less  the  works  are  very  large,  and  some  compensating  gain  is 
made,  it  is  much  better  to  use  smaller  cars,  and  it  is  prefer¬ 
able  to  place  the  bricks  flatways,  as  shown  in  Fig.  53.  Small 
cars  have  to  be  moved  oftener,  but  it  requires  less  help  to 
change  them,  and  there  is  not  the  same  strain  upon  the  cars 
and  damage  to  the  bricks. 

Fig.  53  is  an  inside  view  of  a  machine  house,  and  shows 


Brick  Cars. 


Clay  Elevator. 


Fig.  53. — Page  180. 


Triple  Pressure  Machine. 


Brick  Car. 


No.  2  Machine,  Re-pressing. 


Kiln  Sheds 


Engine  House. 


Machine  House. 


Drying  Sheds. 

Fig.  54.— Page  181. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


181 


’ 

the  Gregg  triple  pressure  brick-macliine,  the  No.  2  machine, 
and  the  elevator  for  clay  at  work ;  also  two  different  styles 
of  brick-cars  being  loaded,  which  are  to  be  run  upon  the 
tracks  into  the  drying-room.  The  line  shaft  for  brick- 
machines  should  be  placed  overhead,  as  it  is  seen  in  Fig.  53, 
it  being  much  easier  to  watch  the  belts  which  drive  the 
brick-machines,  mill,  and  clay  elevator,  than  it  is  when  the 
line  shaft  is  under  'ground,  and  the  belts  are  much  easier 
run  on  and  off,  as  well  as  laced,  in  case  of  necessity. 

Fig.  54  shows  an  exterior  view  of  the  works  of  the  West¬ 
ern  Brick  and  Tile  Co.  This  company  was  organized  for  the 
purpose  of  manufacturing  front  bricks  for  the  Chicago 
market,  with  the  Wm.  L.  Gregg  machines,  and  have  their 
headquarters  at  No.  53  Dearborn  St.,  Chicago,  Ill. 

The  machine  shown  in  Figs.  55  to  59  has  some  peculi- 


FIG.  55 


arities  in  the  arrangement  of  the  mould- wheel,  and  in  the 
manner  of  filling  the  mould  and  applying  the  pressure  which 
is  given  to  the  brick  by  means  of  a  toggle-joint,  and  we 


182  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

illustrate  it  in  detail.  Fig.  55  is  a  perspective  view  of  this 
invention.  Fig.  56  is  a  side  elevation.  Fig.  57  is  a  plan 
view.  Fig.  58  is  a  front  view  of  Fig.  56.  Fig  59  is  a 


FIG.  59 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


183 


front  view  of  the  machine  with  the  mould-wheel  and  platen 
removed. 

This  invention  relates  to  that  class  of  brick-machines  in 
which  the  clay,  taken  directly  from  the  bank,  and  after  being 
disintegrated  and  dampened,  is  compressed  by  a  plunger 
into  a  mould,  from  which  it  is  discharged  after  receiving 
pressure. 

The  object  of  this  contrivance,  which  is  the  joint  inven¬ 
tion  of  Messrs.  Geo.  S.  Selden  and  John  N.  McLean,  of 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  is  to  provide  a  machine  of  a  cheap  and 
simple  construction,  combining  maximum  of  strength  and 
durability,  and  of  an  easy  and  rapid  operation. 

It  consists  of  a  mould-wheel  perforated  with  rectangular 
openings,  which  form  the  brick-moulds,  arranged  in  a  verti¬ 
cal  position  at  the  front  end  of  the  machine,  and  having  an 
intermittingly  rotary  movement  imparted  to  said  mould- 
wheel. 

Two  plungers  for  compressing  the  clay  into  the  moulds, 
and  discharging  the  moulded  bricks,  are  operated  in  con¬ 
junction  with  the  wheel,  and  receive  motion  from  a  toggle- 
joint,  crank  and  cams  arranged  on  a  transverse  shaft  at 
the  upper  part  of  the  machine.  This  shaft  also  carries  a 
grooved  cam-wheel,  which  works  in  connection  with  a  pin- 
wheel  on  the  mould-wheel  shaft,  and  produces  an  intermit¬ 
tent  rotary  movement  of  the  wheel. 

The  mould-wheel,  as  stated,  revolves  in  a  vertical  plane, 
the  moulds  being  brought  successively  up  to  the  clay-box  on 
one  side  of  the  machine  and  charged,  the  motion  of  the 
wheel  ceasing  while  pressure  is  being  applied ;  after  which 
the  moulded  brick  is  carried  by  the  further  movement  of  the 


184 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


wheel  up  to  the  discharging  point  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  machine. 

The  operation  of  moulding  and  expelling  the  bricks  is 
continuous.  While  one  brick  is  being  pressed  into  the 
mould  on  one  side  of  the  wheel,  the  plunger  on  the  opposite 
side  is  at  the  same  instant  forcing  out  a  finished  brick,  which 
bricks  may  be  received  on  an  endless  belt  or  wires,  which- 
ever  is  found  most  convenient. 

A  movable  platen,  to  receive  the  pressure  of  the  moulded 
brick,  is  placed  across  the  front  end  of  the  machine,  and  is 
furnished  with  small  openings  for  the  discharge  of  super¬ 
fluous  clay. 

A  is  a  rectangular  frame,  with  interior  ribs  a  and  a1  of  the 
same  height,  and  extending  the  full  length  of  the  sides,  and 
is  mounted  upon  feet  or  other  suitable  supports;  or  the  sides, 
with  the  supports,  may  form  one  piece. 

B ,  Figs.  56  and  57,  is  a  longitudinal  shaft,  supported  upon 
bearings  C  and  and  carrying  a  pin-wheel  D ,  and  a 
mould-wheel  E  on  its  front  end.  B1  is  a  transverse  shaft, 
elevated  above  the  shaft  B ,  and  supported  in  bearings  C 2 
and  C 3,  and  carrying  two  cams,  F  and  for  operating  the 
expelling-plunger,  a  cam-wheel  G  for  operating  the  mould- 
wheel,  and  a  crank-disk  Ii  for  operating  the  compression- 
plunger. 

The  plunger  I  (shown  in  Figs.  56,  57,  and  59),  which 
compresses  the  brick,  is  placed  within  the  clay-box  T7,  and 
is  operated  by  means  of  a  toggle  6r\  the  front  or  reciprocating 
end  of  which  is  pivoted  to  the  plunger  at  the  point  6,  and 
the  rear  end,  which  bears  the  thrust,  similarly  attached  on  a 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


185 


stationary  pin  P,  with  the  centre-point  pivoted  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  connecting-rod  JR,  which  connects  with  the 
crank-pin  of  the  disk  H. 

The  plunger  J \  which  is  moved  to  and  fro  by  the  cams  F 
F1  to  expel  the  finished  bricks,  is  located  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  machine,  a  certain  distance  above  the  compres¬ 
sion-plunger  I,  and  is  supported  in  guides  K  and  K1  secured 
to  or  forming  a  part  of  the  framing. 

The  rectangular  openings  L  L  L,  etc.  (shown  in  Fig.  58), 
made  in  the  wheel  E,  to  form  the  brick-moulds,  are  arranged 
so  as  to  alternately  assume  a  horizontal  position  above  and 
below  the  centre  of  the  wheel,  and  directly  opposite  to  the 
plungers.  By  this  means  the  bricks  are  moulded  and  dis¬ 
charged  on  different  planes,  rendering  the  operation  of 
charging  the  clay-box  much  easier,  owing  to  its  being  within 
easy  reach  for  shovelling  in  the  clay,  and  discharging  the 
finished  bricks  at  the  most  convenient  height  for  bearing 
them  off. 

M  is  a  platen,  arranged  across  the  front  of  the  mould- 
wheel,  and  pivoted  at  one  end  to  a  projection  N,  on  the 
frame  A,  with  the  opposite  end  resting  in  a  socket,  and  bear¬ 
ing  against  a  shoulder  in  the  projection  N1. 

0  is  a  yoke  attached  to  the  platen,  and  passing  over  an 
eight-sided  or  angular  nut  P,  which  is  secured  on  the  end  of 
the  shaft  B.  Each  angle  or  corner  of  the  nut  bears  against 
the  upper  part  of  the  yoke  as  the  wheel  revolves  and  raises 
the  platen  to  its  proper  horizontal  position,  and  retains  it  in 
that  spot  while  the  wheel  is  at  rest.  When  the  wheel  is 
again  set  in  motion  the  corners  of  the  nut  are  carried  around, 


186 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


which  relieves  and  permits  the  platen  to  drop  a  short  dis¬ 
tance  with  the  wheel,  and  cut  off  or  break  the  cohesion  of 
the  clay.  This  platen  may  be  made  stationary,  if  found 
preferable. 

All  superflous  clay  in  the  moulds  is  discharged  through 
openings  d  d  d,  etc.,  in  the  platen.  These  perforations  are 
made  tapering  from  the  outside  to  insure  a  free  outlet  for  the 
clay. 

The  wheel  E  is  locked  in  position,  when  the  moulds  are 
opposite  the  plungers  /  and  J,  by  means  of  a  sliding  bolt  V ] 
arranged  on  the  left  side  of  the  machine,  as  shown  in  Figs. 
57,  58,  59,  and  openings  XXX,  etc.,  Fig.  58,  being  made 
in  the  face  of  the  wheel,  on  a  line  with  the  centre  of  each 
mould,  to  receive  the  end  of  said  bolt. 

W  is  an  eccentric  on  the  shaft  Bl,  to  operate  the  bolt,  and 
is  adjusted  so  as  to  project  the  end  of  the  bolt  a  slight  dis¬ 
tance  in  advance  of  the  expelling-plunger,  and  to  withdraw 
the  same  before  the  plunger  is  entirely  clear  of  the  mould. 

Q  is  a  hammer,  placed  directly  over  the  clay  box  T7,  and 
is  connected  to  a  shaft  Y,  Figs.  56,  57,  and  59,  by  means  of 
a  long  lever,  Z.  The  shaft  is  provided  with  a  short  arm  X1 
which  rests  upon  projections  p  p  p,  etc.,  on  the  periphery  of 
the  pin-wheel  D. 

The  motion  of  the  pin-wheel  raises  the  arm  X1,  and  pro¬ 
duces  a  partial  rotation  of  the  shaft  Y,  causing  the  hammer 
Q  to  rise  and  fall  at  intervals  directlv  over  the  clav  in  the 
box,  the  object  of  which  is  to  strike  or  pound  the  clay  suffi¬ 
ciently  to  drive  out  the  air  and  solidify  the  clay  to  a  certain 
extent  before  it  is  operated  upon  by  the  plunger. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


187 


The  plunger  I  and  toggle  Gl  can  be  arranged  to  produce 
a  double  pressure  upon  the  brick  in  the  mould.  The  crank 
is  now  so  arranged  as  to  apply  the  extreme  pressure  when 
the  toggle  is  up  to  a  perfectly  horizontal  line.  If  the 
throw  of  the  crank  is  slightly  lengthened,  the  toggle  will  be 
drawn  up  a  short  distance  above  a  horizontal  line,  and  the 
extreme  pressure  for  an  instant  released,  and  will  be  again 
applied  as  the  crank  descends,  and  the  toggle  again  assumes 
a  horizontal  position  before  its  final  descent. 

Motion  is  communicated  to  the  shaft  B 1  by  means  of  the 
spur-wheel  1,  which  receives  motion  from  a  pinion  2, 
mounted  on  a  transverse  shaft,  B 2,  at  the  rear  end  of  the 
machine. 

The  wheel  E  is  only  required  to  move  a  short  distance  to 
bring  the  moulds  successively  opposite  to  the  plungers,  and 
tor  this  purpose  the  elevation  or  curved  portion  of  the  groove 
in  the  wheel  G  is  only  required  to  extend  a  short  distance 
on  the  circumference.  The  remaining  portion  of  the  groove 
extends  in  a  perfectly  straight  line  around  the  remainder  of 
the  periphery,  by  which  means  each  pin  on  the  wheel  D 
remains  stationary  within  the  groove,  while  the  mould-wheel 
is  required  to  be  at  rest.  At  the  proper  time  the  curved 
portion  of  the  groove  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  pin, 
and  a  partial  rotary  movement  is  imparted  to  the  wheel  D , 
and  also  to  the  mould-wheel. 

The  clay  is  thrown  into  the  box  T  through  a  hopper  or 
otherwise,  and  after  receiving  a  blow  from  the  hammer  Q , 
is  forced  by  the  moving  plunger  I  into  the  mould  in  the 
wheel  E ,  and  after  receiving  pressure  is  carried  by  the  revo- 


188 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


lution  of  the  wheel  up  to  the  expelling  plunger  J,  where 
the  brick  is  discharged. 

The  machine  shown  in  Fig.  60  is  the  invention  of  Mr. 
Isaac  Gregg,  Jr.,  and  it  is  known  as  the  “  Combination.” 
This  machine  makes  but  one  brick  at  a  time,  and  will  ave¬ 
rage  about  10,000  per  day  of  ten  hours.  The  cost  is 
$2000,  and  15  horse  power  is  required  to  run  the  machine 
together  with  the  disintegrating  mill. 

Fig.  61  shows  a  machine  manufactured  by  W.  E.  Tallcot  & 
Co.,  Croton  Landing,  N.  Y.,  for  making  a  number  of  bricks  in 
one  mould,  from  tempered  clay.  This  manner  of  moulding 
bricks  is  very  common  in  all  the  States  of  New  England,  as 
well  as  in  many  of  the  Western  States,  and  it  is  the  usual 
method  of  producing  all  the  common  bricks  made  for  the 
New  York  market.  The  principal  points  from  which  that 
market  is  supplied  are  Haverstraw  and  Croton  Landing  on 
the  Hudson  River,  and  several  places  along  the  Sound. 

This  method  of  moulding  is  much  better  adapted  to  light 
sandy  clays  than  it  is  to  those  of  a  sticky  nature,  the  great 
difficulty  being  to  get  the  latter  class  of  clays  to  slip  easily 
from  the  moulds. 

For  working  the  class  of  clays  which  abound  in  the  lo¬ 
calities  named  this  machine  is  most  excellent,  and  it  is  one 
of  the  strongest  and  most  improved  of  its  kind,  and  the 
bricks  made  by  this  class  of  machines  from  loamy  or  light 
sandy  clays  are  stronger  after  being  burned  than  when 
made  by  hand.  The  principle  of  applying  the  pressure  is 
by  a  cam,  which  operates  the  mould-driver  and  communi¬ 
cates  a  powerful  and  positive  motion. 


V 


if 


/  ’  tj 

^'V'U' 


M  o&rwuz  /fic^Mj  ^ 

^  /  <f  g 


.<!..t 4 YU^CA  A  ^ 


a 


2-) 


Fig.  60.  Combination  Brick  Machine.— Page  188. 


f  >rick  Machine. — Page  188. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


189 


The  machine  is  built  to  withstand  the  hard  usage  to 
which  this  class  of  machinery  is  subjected,  the  entire  con¬ 
struction  is  of  iron,  the  shafts  are  large,  and  good  bearings 
are  provided  for  them  in  long  boxes.  The  base  is  good  and 
has  broad  feet;  the  ample  size  and  height  of  the  tempering 
cylinder  A  gives  the  machine  a  good  capacity  for  temper¬ 
ing;  on  the  top  of  the  cylinder  is  strongly  bolted  a  heavy 
frame,  thereby  affording  a  steady  bearing  for  the  tempering 
shaft  B ,  and  also  carrying  the  pinion  shaft  E,  insuring  per¬ 
manent  alignment  of  the  driving  gears. 

There  is  a  safety  appliance  in  front  of  the  clod-cutter, 
which  is  a  gate  or  mouthpiece  pivoted  at  each  end ;  this 
mouthpiece  is  held  in  position  by  a  vertical  spring  which 
engages  the  end  of  the  arm  L.  Should  a  stone  or  other 
obstacle  come  in  contact  with  the  mouthpiece  during  the 
movement  of  the  mould,  the  arm  L  would  slip  by  the 
spring,  allowing  the  mouthpiece  to  swing  on  the  pivots, 
thereby  allowing  the  obstacle  to  pass  out,  and  no  damage 
having  occurred  to  the  machine  or  mould,  nor  interruption 
to  the  working.  The  mouthpiece  can  be  replaced  by  bear¬ 
ing  down  on  the  handle  attached  to  the  arm  X,  and  should 
any  obstacle  present  itself  and  be  too  large  to  pass  through 
the  mouthpiece,  then  the  end  of  the  cast-iron  breaking-rod, 
which  connects  with  the  hooked  arm  K  at  the  bottom  of 
the  machine  breaks  off,  stopping  the  movement  of  the 
mould,  when  the  large  obstruction  may  be  removed,  after 
which  the  breaking-rod  is  again  moved  forward,  connecting 
the  end  with  the  hooked  arm. 

Fig.  62  indicates  the  manner  of  securing  the  wiper  or 


190 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


“  pusher”  to  the  shaft,  each  of  the  two  parts  independent  of 
the  other,  by  means  of  pins  which  pass  through  projecting 
ears  and  also  through  the  hub  of  each  wiper.  By  this  ar¬ 
rangement  one  or  both  wipers  may,  in  case  of  breakage  or 


Fig.  62. 


wear,  be  replaced  through  a  large  door  in  the  back  of  the 
machine  without  removing  the  whole  tempering  shaft. 

The  weight  of  the  machine  is  about  6700  pounds,  but 
lighter  machines  are  also  produced  by  the  same  makers  for 
horse-power  and  also  for  hand-power,  the  clay  for  the  latter 
being  tempered  in  some  independent  manner. 

The  power  required  to  operate  the  steam-power  machine 
shown  in  Fig.  61  is  about  fifteen  horse,  the  product  of  the 
machine  with  that  amount  of  power  is  about  four  thousand 
five  hundred  bricks  per  hour. 

The  prices  of  these  machines,  etc.,  on  board  the  cars  or 
boat  at  Croton  Landing,  N.  Y.,  are  as  follows: — 


Steam-power  machine  .... 

.  $600 

00 

Horse  “  “  .  .  .  . 

.  500 

00 

Hand  machine  using  tempered  clay 

.  250 

00 

Mould,  each . 

2 

75 

Trucks  for  wheeling  bricks  . 

13 

00 

BRICK-MACHINES. 


191 


Before  considering  the  second  class  or  expressing  ma¬ 
chines,  which  may  be  used  for  making  either  bricks,  pipes, 
hollow  flooring,  and  roofing  tiles,  terra-cotta  lumber,  etc., 
there  is  one  point  of  importance  that  should  be  remarked 
upon,  which  is  this :  Bricks  or  hollow  forms  of  earthenware 
that  are  expressed  from  the  die  of  a  machine  and  cut  off  by 
either  wires  or  knives,  are  smooth  and  perfect  in  form  pro¬ 
vided  the  clay  be  not  only  free  from  lumps  and  plastic,  but 
uniform  and  free  from  adventitious  particles.  If  the  clay 
contains  stone  or  gravel  that  is  not  faithfully  pulverized, 
and  the  senseless  habit  of  mixing  ashes  or  coal  with  the 
tempered  clay  is  to  be  introduced,  then  the  action  made  by 
the  wires  or  knife  will  drag  out  more  or  less  of  these  solid 
particles,  and  the  ends  will  be  very  rough  and  the  thickness 
sometimes  uneven. 

In  Fig.  63,  Nos.  1  to  19,  are  shown  different  forms  of 
bricks,  tiles,  and  other  devices,  which  are  made  by  some  tem- 
pered-clay  machines,  the  clay  being  expressed  in  the  proper 
form,  and  then  cut  into  any  desired  lengths  upon  a  suitable 
arrangement  of  rollers. 

For  other  forms  of  tiles  see  those  in  the  hollow  fireproof 
floors,  shown  in  Figs.  120  and  121,  Chapter  VI. 

Sometimes  the  clay  pulverizers  that  will  answer  for  pre¬ 
paring  clay  for  damp  or  dry-clay  machines  will  not  disinte¬ 
grate  for  tempered-clay  machines.  Clays  of  a  very  stony 
nature,  too  stony  to  be  made  into  bricks  with  the  stones  in, 
or  clays  containing  limestone  in  such  quantities  as  to  mate¬ 
rially  injure  the  bricks,  require  in  such  cases  a  different  kind 
of  clay  mill  to  be  employed,  by  which  the  stones  are  removed. 


192 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


That  is,  all  stones  larger  than  a  marble,  the  smaller  ones 
being  crushed  to  powder,  and  at  the  same  time  breaking  up 


Fig.  63. 


r 

i 

Iff — 

0  ©0  0 

if  a 

©  00© 

i 

000© 

F 

©0^0© 

1,  Round  drain  Tile. 

2,  Flat  Top  and  Bottom  Tile,  with 

Round  Hole. 

3,  Octagon  Tile,  with  Round  Hole. 

4,  Flat  Bottom  Tile,  with  Round 

Hole. 

5,  Flat  Bottom  Tile,  with  Oval  Hole. 

6,  Square  Solid  Building  Block,  4£ 

x8£x8f. 

7,  Common  Brick,  4£  x  8f  x  24,  or 

other  sizes. 

8,  Common  Brick,  with  two  perfora¬ 

tions. 

9,  Pavement  Gutter  Brick. 


10,  Cornice  Brick. 

11,  Chimney  Liner. 

12,  Merill’s  Patent  Paving  Tile. 

13,  Hollow  Building  Block. 

14,  Well  Stave. 

15,  Hollow  Building  Block,  with  two 

cavities. 

16,  Hollow  Building  Block,  with  three 

cavities. 

17,  Cellar  Floor  Tile. 

18,  Hollow  Brick,  with  large  perfora¬ 

tions. 

19,  Hollow  Brick,  with  small  perfora¬ 

tions. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


193 


the  clay,  crushing  hard  knots,  and  mixing  the  clay  and  sand 
together  before  entering  the  hopper  of  the  machine. 

This  result  ik  obtained  in  mild,  weak,  or  loamy  clays  by 
passing  them  between  conical  rollers  or  other  suitable  de¬ 
vices,  which  crush  the  clay,  separate  the  stones,  and  throw 
them  out  at  one  end  of  the  rollers,  through  a  spout. 

These  rollers  are  made  of  hard  or  chilled  iron,  running  in 
adjustable  boxes  held  in  an  iron  frame,  and  geared  so  as  to 
rub  the  clay  as  they  crush  it ;  thus,  for  ordinary  mild  clays, 
accomplishing  all  that  is  desired  in  this  direction,  and  they 
are  best  cast  in  “  shells”  or  “  telescopes,”  so  that  the  wear¬ 
ing  parts  can  be  renewed  without  replacing  any  of  the 
other  portions. 

Some  clays  are  so  tenacious  that  they  come  from  the 
bank  in  large  lumps,  and  will  not  be  disintegrated  by  clay- 
rolls  of  ordinary  size  and  construction.  Clays  of  this  cha¬ 
racter  are  found  particularly  in  New  Jersey,  parts  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania  and  Illinois,  the  latter  often  being  dredged  from 
under  water ;  the  surface  of  the  lumps  being  wet  and  slip¬ 
pery,  rolls  of  the  usual  size  will  not  grip  them,  so  that 
ordinary  conical  rolls  will  not  answer  in  such  clays,  unless 
the  lumps  are  cut  up ;  and  to  overcome  this  difficulty  there 
have  been  devised  what  are  termed  by  the  manufacturers 
“  Compound  Clay-rolls,”  and  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  64. 

Fig.  64  shows  a  sectional  side  elevation  of  the  compound 
clay  rolls,  and  Fig.  65  shows  a  sectional  end  elevation. 

These  rolls  consist  of  a  pair  of  very  heavy  rolls  of  large 
diameter,  carried  on  shafts  of  ample  size,  driven  by  heavy, 

coarse  pitch  gear,  to  which  the  large  lumps  of  clay  are  fed, 
13 


194 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


Fig.  64. 

Clay 


Jfojtjtcr  the  J) rick -JtaeAinOs. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


195 


stones  and  all.  The  rolls  run  at  different  speeds,  and  reduce 
the  clay  to  lumps  of,  say  two  inches  in  diameter,  rejecting 
very  large  stones,  say  all  above  four  inches  in  diameter,  and 
reducing  the  rest  to  two  inches  in  diameter  or  less. 

The  crushed  clay  and  smaller  stones  drop  from  these 
large  rolls  into  the  smaller  conical  ones,  which  complete 
the  pulverizing  of  the  clay,  and  eject  the  stones. 

The  weight  of  these  compound  rolls  in  place,  with  gear¬ 
ing  and  pulleys,  framing  all  complete,  is  about  10,000 
pounds,  and  the  price  as  quoted  by  the  manufacturers, 
Messrs.  Chambers,  Bro.  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  is  nine 
hundred  dollars  including  the  right  to  run  under  the  two 
patents,  by  which  they  are  covered. 


Fig.  G6. 


Fig.  66  shows  a  plan  view  of  a  machine  for  mixing  hard 
and  tough  clay  with  sand  and  water.  This  mixer  is  placed 
under  the  clay  rollers,  and  as  the  material  falls  into  the  pit 
in  which  the  curved  circular  arms  or  sweeps  revolve  it  is 
carried  around,  gradually  mixed  together,  and  worked  to¬ 
wards  the  centre  where  it  falls  through  the  orifice  in  the 


196  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

bottom  of  the  pit  and  passes  into  the  hopper  of  the  machine, 
water  falling  upon  the  clay  from  a  sprinkler  overhead. 

Frey’s  four  roller  crusher  lately  invented  is  a  useful  mill 
for  breaking  up  rock  fire-clay  or  hard  brick-clay,  or  will  re¬ 
ceive  the  clay  just  as  it  is  dug  from  the  pit,  and  disinte¬ 
grate  it  completely,  and  at  the  same  time  mix  thoroughly 
any  loam,  sand,  or  other  material  that  may  be  added  to  it. 
The  clay  passes  directly  on  an  endless  belt  or  conveyer  from 
the  mill  to  the  brick  or  tile-machine. 

This  crusher  is  made  in  different  sizes  for  the  various 
purposes  for  which  it  is  adapted  at  the  Eagle  Machine 
Works,  Bucyrus,  Ohio. 

This  mill  has  also  an  attachment  by  which  the  clods  are 
broken,  before  they  enter  the  rollers,  and  by  which  also  the 
stones  are  separated  from  the  clay,  which  is  a  very  desirable 
improvement  in  clay  crushers. 

The  best  method  for  elevating  clay  by  machinery  is 
eagerly  sought  after  by  brick  manufacturers.  The  annoy¬ 
ance  and  loss  caused  by  the  breaking,  in  wet  sticky  clays,  of 
rubber  or  leather  “bucket  belts,”  and  the  “hanging  up”  of 
open  chain  clay-elevators  are  often  serious  drawbacks  and 
annoyances  to  those  engaged  in  this  line  of  production,  and 
it  has  been  proposed  to  employ  an  elevator,  consisting  of  a 
plain  rubber  belt  running  over  concaved  rollers,  at  such 
angle  of  elevation  as  to  carry  up  the  clay  without  allowing 
it  to  roll  off.  The  whole  is  so  constructed  as  to  receive 
the  clay  and  carry  it  up,  and  discharge  it  into  the  hopper 
or  rollers  without  wastage,  loss  of  power,  excessive  wear, 
and  without  annoyance,  and  it  can  be  arranged  as  deemed 
best,  according  to  the  lay  of  the  clay-bank  and  yard. 


BRICK-MACHINES 


197 


By  the  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  67  no  gangway  is 
required,  and  horses  are  not  compelled  to  haul  the  clay  up 


198 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


an  incline  to  get  over  the  machine,  hence  they  can  take 
more  at  a  load,  or  it  makes  their  work  much  less.  All 
wastage,  such  as  defective  brick  (from  stones  where  rollers 
are  not  used),  or  improperly  tempered  or  moistened  clay 
that  should  be  worked  over,  is  carried  at  once  back  into  the 
machine  without  labor;  and  where  clays  are  to  be  particu¬ 
larly  well  mixed  for  pressed  or  other  special  bricks,  the  clay 
can  be  run  over  and  over  without  any  handling — the  off- 
bearing  belt  delivering  the  bricks  that  are  to  be  worked 
over,  or  all  those  not  off- borne  by  the  hoys,  direct  to  the 
elevator  belt. 

It  is  true  that  it  is  not  always  desirable  to  place  the  ele¬ 
vator  as  it  is  represented,  and  especially  so  where  the  bricks 
are  off-borne  two  or  three  hundred  feet  by  machinery,  as  in 
that  case  there  is  not  much  to  be  gained  by  this  particular 
location  of  the  elevator  relative  to  the  off-bearing  frames. 

The  Centennial  Tiffany  Combined  Brick  and  Tile  Ma- 
chine,  shown  in  Fig.  68,  was  first  exhibited  at  the  Exposi¬ 
tion  of  1876,  at  Philadelphia,  where  a  medal  was  awarded 
to  the  inventor,  and  this  suggested  its  name.  The  inventor, 
Mr.  Geo.  S.  Tiffany,  resided  at  that  time  at  London,  Onta¬ 
rio;  but  in  1878,  Frey,  Sheckler,  &  Hoover,  of  Bucyrus,  0., 
secured  the  right  to  manufacture  the  machine  for  the  United 
States,  and  have,  through  the  merits  of  the  machine  and 
business  enterprise,  increased  the  sales  to  an  unexpected 
extent.  The  adaptability  of  this  invention  to  the  vari¬ 
ous  branches  in  the  clay  business  brought  it  in  use  for  pur¬ 
poses  which  the  inventor  probably  never  contemplated  while 
constructing  it.  The  machine  weighs  3500  pounds,  made 


- : - 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


199 


entirely  of  iron  and  steel,  and  requires  about  10-horse 
power  to  run  it  on  brick,  and  from  15  to  20-horse  power  for 
tile.  When  used  for  a  potter’s  mill  a  steel  screen  is  used, 
screening  the  clay  thoroughly  with  a  small  expenditure  of 
power. 

The  capacity  for  tile  of  course  varies  with  the  size;  the 
machine  will  make  15,000  small  tile  per  day  of  ten  hours; 
larger  tile  in  proportion.  For  manufacturing  hollow  bricks, 
building  blocks,  and  hollow  fireproof  flooring,  it  is  a  good 
and  most  efficient  machine.  It  will  make  12,000  bricks  per 
day  of  ten  hours,  and  the  price  of  the  machine  with  brick 
cutting-table  and  die  complete  for  common  bricks,  is  $450. 

For  contractors  who  are  often  obliged  to  manufacture,  to 
supply  their  own  wants,  and  persons  who  rent  clay  lands  for 
the  purpose  of  manufacturing,  and  do  not  wish  to  make 
permanent  improvements  on  the  land,  which  will  be  a  loss 
to  them  when  they  remove,  this  machine  is  specially  desir¬ 
able.  Expensive  grading  may  be  avoided,  as  the  bricks  are 
put  directly  in  the  hack.  Good  wheeling  ground  is  all  that 
is  required  for  a  yard.  When  water  and  good  clay  are  con¬ 
venient  the  work  of  manufacturing  may  commence  in  a  few 
hours  after  getting  the  machine  and  a  10-horsepower  engine 
on  the  ground,  and  temporary  kilns  constructed  of  the  dried 
green  bricks. 

The  machine  shown  in  Fig.  69  is  known  as  the  “Peer¬ 
less”  brick-machine,  and  two  of  them  are  in  constant  opera¬ 
tion  at  the  works  of  the  manufacturers,  the  Peerless  Brick 
Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  where  the  machines  have  been 
run  successfully  both  summer  and  winter  during  the  past 


200  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

five  years.  This  company  makes  all  of  their  common  and 
pressed  bricks  upon  these  machines,  but  not  their  famous 
ornamental  bricks,  two  pages  of  the  designs  of  which  are 
shown  in  this  volume  at  pages  93  and  94,  which  bricks  are 
moulded  and  finished  by  hand. 

The  machine  shown  above  occupies  a  space  of  about  6  x 
12  feet,  and  the  height  from  foundation  is  about  8  feet  and 
6  inches,  and  it  is  solidly  built,  weighing  about  6  tons. 

This  machine  thoroughly  tempers  the  clay,  and  its  pro¬ 
ducts  are  solidly  and  regularly  formed,  and  much  preferable 
to  hand-made  bricks.  They  easily  withstand  the  ordeal  of 
the  drying  oven,  which  is  a  valuable  consideration  to  manu¬ 
facturers,  as  they  can  by  this  means  make  the  operations 
continuous  throughout  all  seasons. 

The  bricks  made  by  this  machine  stand  well  the  process 
of  burning,  and  there  is  not  that  cracking  and  bursting 
which  is  often  to  be  observed  in  bricks  that  are  less  com- 

.r 

pactly  made. 

The  capacity  of  the  machine  is  about  25,000  bricks  per 
day,  and  about  20-liorse  power  is  required  to  run  it. 

The  price  of  this  machine  is  $2000  on  board  at  Phila¬ 
delphia,  and,  in  addition,  $1000  is  charged  for  the  right  to 
use  it 

The  machine  shown  in  Fig.  70  is  known  as  the  “  Cham¬ 
bers”  tempered-clay  brick-machine,  and  the  size  shown  is 
guaranteed  to  make  from  40,000  to  50,000  bricks  per  day 
of  ten  hours,  and  the  price  is  $2500 ;  in  addition  to  which 
$1000  is  charged  for  the  right  to  use  it. 

This  machine  is  constructed  almost  wholly  of  iron  and 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


201 


steel,  and  is  made  very  strong 
and  durable,  and  it  will  be  best 
understood  by  an  explanation  of 
each  distinctive  feature,  and  its 
operation  as  the  clay  advances 
through  the  machine.  The  ope¬ 
rations  of  the  different  features 
are  continuous  one  with  the 
other,  and  entirely  automatic. 

Ordinarily  the  clay  is  taken  di¬ 
rectly  from  the  bank  and  dump¬ 
ed  on  the  platform  covering  the 
machine,  and  at  the  side  of  a 
conical  hopper  that  leads  into 
the  tempering  case  of  the  ma¬ 
chine,  and  mixed,  when  neces¬ 
sary,  with  loam  or  sand,  and  the 
requisite  amount  of  water  being 
added,  to  temper  the  clay  to  the 
proper  consistency,  the  mass  is 
shovelled  into  the  hopper,  and 
falls  into  the  machine. 

The  hopper  of  the  brick-ma¬ 
chine  proper  is  circular,  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  clay  from  sticking  in 
the  corners,  and  is  larger  at  the 
bottom  than  at  the  top,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  72,  to  prevent  jamming 
of  the  mass.  It  enters  the  tem¬ 
pering  case  at  one  side  of  its  cen- 


Fig.  70. 


202  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

tre  line,  so  that  the  clay  in  falling  meets  the  revolving  tem¬ 
pering  knives  as  they  are  coming  up. 

This  keeps  up  an  agitation  of  the  clay  in  the  hopper,  and 
tends  to  prevent  clogging,  and  an  irregular  supply  of  clay  to 
the  tempering  device. 

The  tempering  portion  of  the  machine  (Fig.  71)  consists 


of  a  strong  cast-iron  conical  case,  in  which  revolves  a  hori¬ 
zontal  shaft  into  which  are  set,  spirally,  strong  tempering 
knives,  or  blades  of  wrought  iron  or  steel,  so  that,  as  they 
pass  through  the  clay,  they  move  it  forward.  The  clay 
being  stiff,  and  not  having  much  water  on  it,  is  not  liable 
to  slip  before  the  knives,  but  is  cut,  and  thoroughly  tem¬ 
pered,  the  air  escaping  back  through  the  untempered  clay, 
so  that  by  the  time  the  clay  reaches  the  small  end  of  the 
tempering  case,  it  is  ready  to  be  formed  into  bricks. 

On  the  end  of  the  tempering  shaft  (see  Fig.  71)  is 
secured  a  conical  screw  of  hard  iron,  which  revolves  in  a 
chilled-iron  conical  case,  the  inside  of  which  is  ribbed  or 
fluted,  lengthwise,  so  as  to  prevent  the  clay  from  revolving 
in  it,  and  is  chilled,  to  prevent  wearing. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


203 


The  screw  being  smooth  and  very  hard,  the  clay  slides  on 
the  screw,  thus  becoming,  as  it 
were,  a  nut ;  the  screw  revolving 
and  not  being  allowed  to  move 
backward,  the  clay  must  go  for¬ 
ward,  sliding  within  the  screw 
case.  This  case  is  heated  by 
steam,  which  facilitates  the  slid¬ 
ing  of  the  clay,  and  saves  con¬ 
siderable  power. 

This  operation  further  tem¬ 
pers  the  clay,  and  delivers  it,  in  a  solid  round  column,  to 
the  forming  die. 

Fig.  73  represents  the  forming  die  held  within  the  steam- 
heated  former  case. 

Plastic  materials,  moving  under  pressure,  follow  the  laws 
of  fluids,  and  the  great  difficulty  heretofore  experienced  in 
machines  expressing  plastic  materials  has  been  to  make  the 
flowing  mass  move  with  uniform  velocity  through  all  its 
parts.  As  the  channel  of  a  river  flows  faster  than  the  shal¬ 
low  portions,  or  those  near  the  banks,  so  does  clay  move 
through  a  die,  the  friction  of  the  corners  holding  them  back, 
while  the  centre  moves  more  freely.  Mr.  Chambers  over¬ 
comes  this  difficulty  by  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  “former,” 
which  is  so  shaped  as  to  facilitate  the  flow  of  the  clay  to  the 
corners,  and  retard  it  opposite  to  the  straight  sides  of  the 
die,  the  projections  being  much  larger  opposite  the  larger 
diameter  of  the  die. 

For  very  wide  and  thin  bricks  the  resisting  projection  is 
omitted  wholly  at  the  short  diameter  of  the  die,  or  at  the 


204 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


edge  of  the  bricks,  but  the  spreading  of  the  clay  outward  to 
the  edge  is  facilitated  rather  than  into  the  corners  only. 

Fig.  73. 


By  this  means  the  angles  of  the  bar  of  clay  are  reinforced 
and  made  very  solid  and  sharp,  thus  insuring  perfectly 
square  and  well-defined  corners  to  the  bricks. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


205 


The  “  former”  is  secured  to  the  screw-case  by  a  hinge  and 
swingbolt,  so  that  it  may  be  quickly  swung  open  for  the 
removal  of  stones.  This  swinging  bolt  is  secured  to  the 
case  by  a  pin  of  just  sufficient  strength  to  hold  under  nor¬ 
mal  conditions,  and  when  undue  strain  comes  from  hard 
clay,  etc.,  it  yields,  thus  forming  a  safeguard  against  acci- 
dents  arising  from  improper  feeding.  This  “  former”  is  also 
heated  by  steam,  to  facilitate  the  sliding  of  the  clay. 

The  forming  and  finishing  part  of  the  die  (which  deter¬ 
mines  the  exact  breadth  and  thickness  of  the  bar  of  clay  or 
the  brick)  is  a  hard  iron  lining,  that  can  be  removed  and 
renewed  in  a  few  minutes  and  at  trifling  cost,  thus  enabling- 
manufacturers  always  to  keep  the  dies  (or  moulds),  and 
consequently  the  bricks,  of  standard  size. 

As  the  bar  of  clay  issues  from  the  forming  die,  it  passes 
through  a  small  chamber  filled  with  fine,  dry  sand,  which 
adheres  to  the  surface  of  the  bricks.  The  surplus  sand  is 
kept  back  in  the  chamber  by  swinging  elastic  scrapers, 
which  allow  the  bar  to  escape  with  its  adhering  sand. 

This  sanded  surface  of  the  clay-bar  renders  the  bricks, 
when  green,  much  nicer  to  handle,  prevents  them  from 
sticking  together  on  the  barrows  or  in  the  hacks,  or  on  the 
drying  cars,  and  improves  them  in  color  when  burnt. 

By  its  use  a  sanded  surface  is  produced  which  closely  re¬ 
sembles  that  of  a  hand-moulded  brick,  and  renders  them 
less  liable  to  “  daub”  in  laying.  This  sanding  device  per¬ 
forms  the  function  of  sanding  a  brick  after  it  has  been 
moulded,  a  thing  never  before  successfully  accomplished  by 
machinery. 


206  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

The  cut-off  of  this  machine,  instead  of  the  usual  wires 
attached  to  a  frame,  consists  of  a  thin  blade  of  steel,  secured 
to  the  periphery  of  a  drum,  in  the  form  of  a  spiral,  the  dis¬ 
tance  between  the  blades  of  which  is  that  required  for  the 
length  of  a  brick,  and  the  projection  of  which  gradually 
increases  from  nothing  at  its  first  end  to  the  full  width  of 
the  widest  brick  to  be  cut. 

This  spiral  knife  runs  perpendicularly,  in  openings,  in  the 
links  of  an  endless  chain,  supported  upon  rollers,  the  chain 
being  so  formed  as  to  support  the  bar  of  clay  from  the  bot¬ 
tom  and  one  edge ;  so  that  the  clay  is  fully  supported  while 
being  slowly  cut  off  by  the  long  drawing  cut  of  the  spiral 
blades,  while  passing  through  the  openings  in  the  chain. 

The  distance  between  the  spiral  blades  being  equal, 
the  lengths  of  the  brick  are  absolutely  uniform,  thus  over¬ 
coming  one  of  the  greatest  practical  objections  hitherto  ex¬ 
isting  in  the  Chambers  machine. 

The  drawing  cut  of  the  spiral  blade  cuts  the  ends  of  the 
bricks  perfectly  smooth,  and  almost  mathematically  square, 
thus  correcting  another  defect  hitherto  existing  in  these 
machines. 

The  speed  of  this  spiral  cutting-blade  is  controlled  by  the 
movement  of  the  clay  itself;  hence,  no  matter  how  irregular 
the  flow  of  clay  from  the  die,  the  spiral  runs  in  exact  unison 
therewith ;  consequently,  there  is  absolute  uniformity  in  the 
length  of  the  bricks. 

This  manner  of  controlling  the  speed  of  the  spiral  by  the 
clay  is  so  positive  that  it  will  run  at  any  celerity,  from  three 
to  one  hundred  bricks  per  minute,  while  the  machine  runs 
at  its  regular  movement. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


207 


The  bricks,  thus  cut  from  the  continuous  bar,  are  sepa¬ 
rated  and  carried  by  an  endless  belt  any  desired  distance; 
sometimes  two  hundred  feet  across  the  yard,  from  which  the 
bricks  may  be  wheeled  to  any  point  most  convenient  for 
“  hacking,”  or  loaded  directly  upon  the  dryer  cars,  as  may 
be  required. 

All  clay  has  more  or  less  stones  in  it,  and  as  it  is  imprac¬ 
ticable  to  pick  them  all  out,  and  requires  considerable  power 
and  machinery  to  crush  or  screen  them,  there  is  a  necessity 
of  making  some  provision  for  them,  even  if  there  should  be 
only  one  stone  in  every  “  ten  thousand  of  clay.” 

In  this  machine  the  tempering-knives  run  six  inches  from 
the  case,  so  that  there  is  no  danger  of  a  stone  five  inches  in 
its  longest  diameter  catching  between  the  end  of  the  tem¬ 
pering-knives  and  the  case,  but  they  are  frequently  imbed¬ 
ded  in  the  clay  that  occupies  the  space  between  the  ends  ot 
the  knives  and  the  case.  If  a  stone  is  more  than  three 
inches  in  diameter,  and  does  not  lodge  in  the  stationary 
lining  of  clay  in  the  case,  it  will  lodge  at  the  entrance  to 
the  expressing  screw,  preventing  the  clay  from  issuing  at 
the  die,  when  a  safety-valve  is  forced  open,  through  which 
the  stone  may  readily  be  removed.  If  a  stone  less  than 
three  inches  in  diameter  passes  to  that  point,  it  will  go 
through  the  screw,  the  openings  between  the  threads  being 
less  at  the  entrance  than  at  any  other  point;  so  that  a  stone 
that  once  fairly  enters  cannot  lodge  until  it  has  reached  the 
forming  die,  where  it  will  lodge,  if  it  is  larger  than  the 
thickness  of  a  brick,  and  prevent  the  proper  flow  of  clay, 
causing  the  bar  to  split  in  two,  or  only  part  of  the  clay  to 


208  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

issue;  this  forming  die  being  secured  on  hinges,  in  less  than 
one  minute  it  can  be  swung  open  and  the  stone  knocked 
out,  when  the  die  is  closed  and  the  machine  again  started. 

It  is  not  very  often  that,  in  working  good  brick-clays, 
stones  larger  than  the  thickness  of  a  brick  get  into  the  ma¬ 
chine,  and  very  seldom  one  larger  than  the  opening  to  the 
screw ;  so  that  it  is  but  seldom  that  the  manufacturer  is 
troubled  with  stones  that  will  not  pass  the  screw. 

Small  stones  occur  much  more  frequently,  and  pass  freely  j 
through  the  machine,  being  buried  in  the  bar  of  clay  and 
passing  to  the  cut-off.  When  a  stone  is  buried  ill  the  bar 
of  clay  at  the  line  of  severance,  the  spiral  knife  must  either 
cut  through  it,  be  broken,  or  some  provision  be  made  by 
which  the  blade  will  not  be  injured.  The  first  is  not  prac¬ 
ticable,  as  the  stones  are  often  very  hard ;  and  to  break  a 
knife  every  time  it  should  happen  to  strike  a  stone  would 
render  the  machine  useless. 

In  order  that  the  spiral  knife  should  not  be  affected  by 
stones,  the  shaft  to  which  it  is  secured  is  held  in  position  by 
gravity  and  countenveighted,  so  as  to  adjust  it  with  just 
sufficient  force  to  compel  the  knife  to  pass  through  the  bar 
of  clay.  When  the  knife  comes  in  contact  with  any  hard 
foreign  substance,  as  stones,  brickbats,  or  bones,  it  rides  up 
on  the  obstruction,  and  when  passed  falls,  by  gravity,  to  its 
original  position,  thus  escaping  injury,  and  not  interrupting 
the  continuous  operation  of  the  machine. 

These  spiral  blades  are  made  of  steel,  and  will  cut  off,  in 
good  smooth  clays,  from  two  to  five  millions  of  bricks,  and 
in  stony  clays  from  one  to  two  millions.  These  blades  are 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


209 


secured  to  the  drum  by  a  spi¬ 
ral  clamp,  and  can  be  replaced 
in  a  few  moments. 

Fig.  74  shows  a  plan  view, 
partly  in  section,  of  the  Cham¬ 
bers  brick-machine. 

After  moulding,  the  next 
step  in  the  production  of 
machine-made  bricks  is  the 
drying,  and  this  can  be  ac¬ 
complished  by  either  natural 
or  artificial  means. 

The  natural  means  is  to 
place  the  bricks  in  the  sheds 
and  dry  them  by  the  atmo¬ 
sphere. 

In  large  daily  productions 
of  bricks  it  is  found  very  dif¬ 
ficult  to  dry  the  stock  in  sheds, 
which,  being  large  and  cover¬ 
ing  a  great  area  of  land,  makes 
the  cost  of  wheeling  the  bricks 
to  and  from  them  very  great. 
In  addition,  the  bricks,  after 
being  placed  in  the  sheds,  are 
liable  not  to  dry,  and  as  they 
can  be  set  in  the  kiln  in  a 
damp  condition  only  with  a 
positive  certainty  of  losing 

them,  valuable  time  would  be 
14 


Fig.  74. 


210 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


lost  and  great  annoyance  caused.  Altogether,  the  first  cost 
for  brick-driers,  cars,  and  tracks,  is  more  than  for  common 
drying  sheds  and  barrows,  but  the  saving  in  the  cost  of 
handling  the  bricks  much  more  than  compensates  for  this. 
The  expense  for  fuel  and  attendance  while  the  bricks  are 
in  the  driers  should  not  be  charged  wholly  against  them,  as 
time  and  fuel  are  largely  saved  in  the  burning. 

The  great  advantage  in  the  employment  of  driers  is  that 
the  work  can  be  continued  throughout  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  especially  in  the  early  spring,  when  bricks  are  usually 
higher  than  at  any  other  period  of  the  year.  The  effective 
system  of  heating  the  driers  by  steam  coils,  alluded  to  in 
Chapter  VII.,  can  be  applied  if  desired. 

In  all  works  producing  bricks  in  large  quantities  by  ma¬ 
chinery,  it  is  much  cheaper  in  the  end  to  place  the  bricks 
directly  upon  cars  and  carry  them  to  suitably  constructed 
driers  erected  for  the  purpose  of  expeditiously  extracting  a 
portion  of  the  surplus  moisture  from  the  stock. 

The  drier,  shown  on  page  214,  is  controlled  by  Messrs. 
Chambers  Bro.  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  consists  of 
six  or  more  brick  flues,  about  forty  feet  long,  three-and-a- 
half  feet  wide  at  bottom  and  two  feet  at  top,  and  four  feet 
high,  built  of  bricks,  with  a  railroad  track  through  each  flue, 
slightly  descending  from  the  machine,  with  fire-grates  and 
doors  at  lower  end,  and  stack  at  the  upper  end  of  the  drier. 

Each  flue  has  an  iron  door,  sliding  in  iron  grooves  and 
counterpoised  by  a  weight  at  either  end,  so  that  the  flue  is 
readily  opened  and  closed  for  the  admission  and  exit  of  the 
cars  loaded  with  either  the  green  or  .dried  bricks. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


211 


From  the  grates,  upon  which  coal,  coke,  or  wood  is 
burned,  the  results  of  combustion  are  conveyed  along  and 
near  the  bottom  of  the  tunnel  to  near  the  stack  end,  and  are 
allowed  to  escape  gradually,  through  perforations  or  slots, 
up,  under,  through,  or  between  the  bricks  on  the  iron  cars. 

In  addition  to  the  gases  from  combustion  a  large  amount 
of  air  is  admitted  over  the  furnace  into  the  flue,  which  be¬ 
comes  heated,  and  when  distributed  through  the  bricks  by 
means  of  the  adjustable  flue,  takes  up  the  moisture  from 
the  bricks  and  carries  it  off  through  the  stack. 

The  cars  are  constructed  of  iron,  and  are  designed  so  that 
the  slats  can  be  turned  up  and  over  on  the  next  one,  and 
the  “  off-bearers”  from  the  machine,  and  the  “  tossers”  in 
the  kiln  can  stand  within  the  body  of  the  car,  close  up  to 
their  work,  for  loading  and  unloading  the  bricks.  This  is 
an  improvement  of  far  more  value  than  would  at  first  ap¬ 
pear,  for  by  standing  so  conveniently  to  the  work,  both  to 
the  off-bearing  frame  of  the  machine  and  to  the  hacks  on 
the  car,  one  hacker  or  off-bearer  is  enabled  to  perform  much 
more  work  than  he  would  do  if  compelled  to  lean  over  the 
width  of  the  car. 

The  boxes  on  these  cars  are  made  with  friction-rollers  in 
them,  and  run  without  lubrication. 

They  travel  so  lightly  that  a  boy  will  transport  four  hun¬ 
dred  and  forty  bricks  on  one  of  them  with  greater  ease  than 
a  man  will  push  a  wheelbarrow  load  on  the  best-designed 
barrow. 

At  each  end  of  the  flues  is  a  transfer  or  switching  car, 
which  transfers  the  loaded  cars  from  a  single  track,  running 


212 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


from  the  machine,  on  to  any  one  of  the  six  tracks  running 
into  the  flues ;  and  in  like  manner  from  any  one  of  the  six 
flues  to  the  track  running  to  the  kilns. 

The  loaded  cars  are  transferred  into  any  one  of  the  kilns 
by  means  of  transfer  cars,  and  the  empty  ones  returned  to 
the  machine  by  a  return-track,  outside  of  the  flues. 

The  whole  of  this  arrangement  may  be  under  an  inclosed 
building,  and  quite  comfortable  to  work  in  at  all  seasons. 

The  cars  are  moved  to  the  side  of  the  machine,  where  the 
bricks  are  hacked  on  them  direct  from  the  off-bearing  apron, 
and  require  no  more  handling  until  ready  to  “toss”  in  the 
kiln.  One  man  will  hack  from  20,000  to  25,000  bricks 
upon  these  cars,  ready  for  drying,  direct  from  the  machine, 
in  ten  hours. 

The  loaded  car  is  then  run  on  to  the  transfer  car,  and 
from  thence  into  any  one  of  the  flues,  where  a  current  of 
heated  air  (an  artificial  summer  breeze)  is  forced  through 
them,  the  steam  from  the  bricks  near  the  fire  condensing  on 
the  surfaces  of  the  cold  ones,  and  preventing  checking  or 
cracking,  while  the  bricks  absorb  the  heat  from  the  steam. 

When  the  bricks  directly  over  the  fire  are  dry,  the  car  is 
run  out  to  the  kiln  to  be  set,  a  fresh  car  being  put  in  at  the 
upper  end,  pushing  the  others  down,  and  bringing  another 
partially  dry  car  immediately  over  the  fire,  and  so  on. 

One  ton  of  anthracite  coal  will  dry  25,000  bricks,  but  the 
dryer  saves  a  large  proportion  of  coal  in  the  burning  of  the 
bricks  (as  we  have  before  stated),  and  saves  handling  the 
stock  twice — once  in  hacking  or  laying  on  the  floors,  and 
once  in  reloading  on  barrows  to  be  wheeled  to  the  kilns. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


213 


It  also  dispenses  with  two  or  three  wheelers  from  the  ma¬ 
chine  to  the  sheds,  and  one  of  the  wheelers  and  one  loader 
in  the  setting-gang,  the  cars  running  directly  from  the  ma¬ 
chine  into  the  tunnel,  thence  into  the  kilns,  the  bricks  being 
set  from  the  cars,  one  of  the  setting-gang  tossing  and  one 
managing  the  cars  alternately.  The  cost  of  the  coal  to  dry 
bricks  artificially  is  much  more  than  saved  by  the  economy 
of  labor,  while  the  amount  of  fuel  to  burn  the  bricks  is  less, 
because  the  bricks  are  more  thoroughly  dried  than  by  the 
open  air.  Hence  the  expense  of  artificial  drying  is  less 
than  that  of  sunshine. 

The  advantage  of  running  an  establishment  in  all  wea¬ 
thers,  and  twelve  months  in  the  year,  instead  of  eight,  and 
having  bricks  in  the  spring,  when  they  command  the  best 
price,  is  too  evident  to  need  argument,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
advantage  to  be  gained  in  giving  employment  to  your  work¬ 
men  the  whole  year  round,  and  the  difference  in  the  cost  of 
labor  between  winter  and  summer ;  but  all  of  these  advan- 
vantages  sink  into  insignificance  when  the  superior  quality 
of  the  bricks  is  considered.  The  bricks  not  being  disturbed 
from  the  time  they  are  put  on  the  cars  until  they  are  run 
into  the  kilns  thus  avoid  two  handlings  in  loading  on 
the  barrows  for  the  two  wheelings,  whereby  their  shape  and 
angles  are  preserved,  rendering  them  much  more  perfect 
when  burnt,  and  increasing  their  value  in  the  market,  while 
their  cost  is  less  than  shed-dried  bricks. 

We  do  not  feel  that  it  detracts  from  the  value  of  this  dryer 
frankly  to  state  that  it  will  not  work  in  all  clays,  as  it  is  not 
usually  practicable  in  very  strong  clays,  or  clays  that  will 


214  "  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

not  dry  without  cracking  in  the  sun,  but  for  loamy  or  sandy 
clays,  or  any  that  do  not  easily  crack  in  drying,  we  can 
recommend  it  as  economical  and  profitable ;  but  still  we 
would  advise  a  practical  test  of  the  clay  rather  than  to  erect 
a  dryer,  subject  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  clay  standing  such 
treatment. 


FIG.  75 


Fig.  75  is  a  transverse  vertical  section  of  a  drying-flue 
provided  with  the  improvement  which  has  been  mentioned 
for  distributing  the  heat.  Fig.  76  is  a  horizontal  sectional 
view  on  the  line  a  5,  Fig.  75.  Fig.  77  is  a  vertical  longi¬ 
tudinal  section  on  the  line  c  cZ,  Fig.  75.  Fig.  78  is  a  cross- 
section,  enlarged,  of  the  air-distributing  or  diffusing  flue. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


215 


This  invention  consists  in  the  combination,  with  the  main 
flue  of  a  usual  kiln  for  the  artificial  drying  of  green  bricks 
or  other  moist  articles,  of  an  auxiliary  flue,  whereby  the 
heated  air  from  the  furnace  is  caused  to  be  diffused  along 
the  length  of  the  main  flue  and  directed  up  through  the 
bricks. 

The  usual  construction  of  the  brick-drying  kilns  which 
this  device  is  designed  to  improve  consists  of  a  large  flue  A, 
built  of  bricks,  with  a  furnace  D ,  at  one  end  and  a  smoke¬ 
stack  at  the  other,  together  with  sliding  iron  doors  for  open¬ 
ing  and  closing  the  entrance  and  exit  of  the  kiln,  and  pro¬ 
vided  with  a  track  (7,  on  which  run  the  iron  trucks  B , 
which  carry  the  hacked  bricks  to  be  dried.  The  laden 
trucks  are  pushed  in  at  the  stack  end,  and,  when  the  bricks 
are  sufficiently  dried,  out  at  the  furnace  end.  The  defect  in 
such  kilns  arises  from  the  tendency  of  the  heated  air  to 
ascend  directly  from  and  near  the  furnace  to  the  roof  and 
upper  part  of  the  kiln,  and  to  pass  off  into  the  stack  with¬ 
out  having  done  its  full  duty — that  is  to  say,  without  hav¬ 
ing  taken  up  all  the  moisture  from  the  bricks  which  it  is 
capable  of  absorbing — and  thus,  while  the  upper  tiers  of  the 
bricks  become  rapidly  dried,  the  lower  tiers  dry  slowly  and 
at  a  loss  of  time  and  an  excessive  cost  of  fuel. 

This  obvious  and  serious  defect  is  obviated  by  introduc¬ 
ing  an  air-diffusing  flue  F,  having  numerous  perforations  h , 
which  flue  is  located  at  the  bottom  of  the  main  flue,  and 
preferably  between  the  tracks  (7,  directly  beneath  the  middle 
of  the  trucks,  and  extending  from  over  the  furnace  D  the 
whole  length,  or  nearly  so,  of  the  main  flue,  as  shown.  It 


216 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


is  preferable  to  make  this  auxiliary  flue  of  sheet-iron,  bent 
into  the  angular  form  shown  in  the  drawings,  its  side  edges 
resting  upon  the  floor  or  upon  the  sleepers  of  the  track. 
The  body  of  heated  air  rising  from  the  furnace  D,  instead  of 
being  entirely  free  to  escape,  as  heretofore,  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  kiln,  is  diffused  by  the  auxiliary  flue  F  along  the  en¬ 
tire  length  of  the  drier,  passing  up  through  the  perforations 
/;,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows  in  Fig.  78,  and,  coming  into 
contact  first  with  the  lower  tiers  of  bricks,  ascends  through 
the  superposed  tiers,  and  finally  passes  off  through  the  stack 
charged  with  moisture.  Thus  the  drying  of  the  bricks  is 
more  rapidly,  evenly,  and  economically  effected  than  has 
been  heretofore  possible  without  this  improvement. 

Sometimes  the  cars  themselves  can  be  made  the  means  of 
drying  the  bricks  as  well  as  of  carrying  them  from  the  ma¬ 
chine  to  the  kiln. 

This  manner  of  drying  can  be  performed  either  in  the 
open  air  or  sheds,  or  the  cars  can  be  placed  in  driers  if  so 
desired.  This  class  of  cars  can  be  used  for  drying  terra¬ 
cotta,  drain-pipes,  etc.,  as  well  as  for  bricks. 

The  drying-car,  shown  in  Figs.  79,  80,  and  81,  which  is 
the  invention  of  Mr.  Wm.  L.  Gregg,  of  Chicago,  Ill.,  is  to 
provide  a  convenient  and  efficient  portable  drier  for  bricks 
and  other  articles  made  from  clay,  as  well  as  for  various 
products  of  chemical  and  other  manufacturing  industries 
which  require  to  be  subjected  to  a  process  of  desiccation, 
and  subsequently  transported  from  one  portion  of  the  plant 
or  factory  to  another. 

To  this  end  the  improvements  consist  in  the  combination, 
in  a  drying-car,  of  running-gear,  a  series  of  tubular  supports 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


217 


for  the  articles  to  be  treated,  and  valves  governing  the 
admission  and  exit  of  steam  or  heated  air  to  and  from  the 
tubular  supports,  and  affording  attachments  for  couplings, 
whereby  the  car  may  be  connected  to  a  steam  boiler  or 
other  source  of  heat,  and  to  another  car  when  desired. 

This  invention  provides  a  car  which  is  simple,  strong,  and 
durable,  and  in  its  use  a  material  economy  of  time,  labor, 
and  fuel  is  attained  by  applying  the  heating  medium  to  any 
required  number  of  the  articles  to  be  dried  within  the  capa¬ 
city  of  the  car  as  soon  as  placed  upon  the  racks,  and  com¬ 
pleting  the  operation  thereon  (which  may  be  effected,  if 
desired,  within  a  closed  chamber  or  apartment  having  suit¬ 
able  apertures  for  the  escape  of  the  vapors),  instead  of,  as 
has  heretofore  been  the  case,  employing  the  heat  of  a  kiln, 
in  which  a  small  quantity  of  the  articles  cannot  be  economi¬ 
cally  dried,  nor  can  the  degree  of  heat  be  conveniently  or 
expeditiously  governed  and  altered. 

Fig.  79  is  a  plan  or  top  view  of  a  drying-car  embodying 
the  improvements;  Fig.  80  a  vertical  longitudinal  central 
section  through  the  same ;  and  Fig.  81a  vertical  transverse 
section  through  the  same  as  provided  with  additional  dry¬ 
ing-racks. 

To  carry  out  the  invention,  construct  a  rectangular  rack 
or  platform  J,  of  gas  or  steam  pipes,  united  at  their  ends  by 
manifolds  a ,  elbows  or  fittings  a1,  or  in  any  other  suitable 
manner,  the  arrangement  of  the  pipes  and  connections  being 
such  as  to  provide  a  circulation  of  steam  or  hot  air  from  one 
end  of  the  rack  to  the  other  through  each  pipe  of  the  series. 
A  valve  or  cock  a2,  is  fitted  to  each  end  of  the  rack,  so  as 


218  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

to  govern  the  admission  and  exit  of  steam  or  other  heating 
medium  to  and  from  the  interior  of  the  same,  each  of  the 
valves  being  threaded  or  otherwise  adapted  for  the  attach¬ 
ment  of  a  flexible  coupling  or  hose  a3,  by  which  communi¬ 
cation  may  be  established  with  a  steam-boiler  or  other 
heater,  or  with  the  rack  of  another  drying-car. 


B 


Fig.  81 

a' 


Drip-cocks  a4,  one  or  more,  may  be  provided  for  relieving 
the  rack  from  any  water  of  condensation  that  may  accumu¬ 
late  therein. 

The  form  of  rack  shown  in  the  drawings  consists  of  a 
series  of  pipes  arranged  longitudinally,  and  connected  by 
end  manifolds  a,  having  internal  partitions,  which  provide 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


219 


a  continuous  passage,  in  alternate  directions,  through  all  the 
pipes ;  but  the  arrangement  and  method  of  construction  may 
be  varied,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  constructor. 

The  tubular  rack  A  is  mounted  upon  running-gear,  con¬ 
sisting  of  wheels  B  and  axles  b ,  the  wheels  being  either  fast 
or  loose  upon  the  axles,  as  preferred.  In  the  instance  shown 
the  axles  rotate  in  bearings  51,  secured  to  the  lower  side  of 
a  rectangular  frame  J51,  to  the  top  of  which  the  rack  A  is 
secured  by  straps  1A.  Such  arrangement  of  a  separate  frame 
supporting  the  drying-rack  is  deemed  preferable  for  use  in 
cases  where  two  or  more  cars  are  to  be  coupled  together 
and  moved  with  their  contents  from  place  to  place,  as  the 
pipe-joints  are  thereby  relieved  from  longitudinal  strain, 
and  convenient  means  for  attaching  the  axle-boxes  and 
coupling  the  cars  together  are  provided. 

It  will  be  obvious,  however,  that  when  desired  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  reducing  weight  and  cost  of  construction,  the  dry¬ 
ing-rack  may  serve  as  the  sole  framing  of  the  car,  and  the 
wheels  can  either  be  made  to  revolve  on  journals  formed 
upon  the  end  manifolds,  or  with  or  upon  axles  supported 
in  bearings  connected  to  the  manifolds,  or  to  the  pipes 
themselves. 

Vertical  bars  a5  or  slatted  side  pieces  of  any  desired  form 
may  be  secured  to  the  car,  to  afford  lateral  support  to  the 
articles  placed  upon  the  rack. 

In  the  transverse  section,  Fig.  81,  the  car  is  shown  as  pro¬ 
vided  with  three  separate  tubular  racks,  arranged  one  above 
the  other,  which  construction  will  be  found  desirable,  where 
a  large  amount  of  heating-surface  is  required. 


220 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


The  pipes  of  the  upper  racks  are  connected  at  their  ends 
by  elbows  or  fittings  a1,  and  are  supported  by.  transverse 
straps  secured  to  the  vertical  bars  a5. 

After  the  bricks  have  been  properly  dried,  the  next  step 
is  to  place  them  in  the  kiln  to  be  burned. 

The  setting  of  the  machine-made  bricks  is  usually  done 
by  the  day ;  there  should  be  no  wheeling,  as  is  the  case  with 
hand-made  bricks. 

One  laborer  to  push  in  all  the  cars  for  one  gang,  and 
three  men  in  the  kiln,  are  the  usual  complement  of  one 
machine-setting  gang. 

Two  of  the  three  men  in  the  kiln  should  be  setters,  as  one 
of  them  can  be  working  in  the  “  bottom”  or  building  the 
arches,  while  one  is  tossing,  and  the  other  setting  the  bricks 
on  the  lower  bench.  When  it  is  desired  to  put  on  the  top 
bench,  one  man  can  toss,  one  stand  between  the  tosser  and 
setter,  and  one  set  the  bricks. 

In  very  large  works  it  is  not  unusual  to  have  four  of  these 
gangs  in  one  kiln  at  the  same  time ;  twenty-five  thousand 
bricks  is  the  usual  amount  set  by  each  gang.  In  some 
works,  where  all  the  machinery  is  in  perfect  running  order, 
the  proprietor  requires  a  certain  number  of  bricks  to  be 
made  and  handled  for  a  day’s  work ;  and  as  soon  as  this  is 
accomplished,  be  it  in  eight,  nine,  or  ten  hours,  the  men  are 
at  liberty.  In  one  large  brick-yard,  producing  bricks  by 
the  machine  process,  located  in  the  city  of  Washington, 
D.  C.,  the  number  of  perfect  bricks  required  to  be  made 
and  set  is  eighty-eight  thousand ;  as  soon  as  this  is  accom- 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


221 


plished,  all  hands  in  the  works  stop,  including  laborers  in 
the  clay  banks,  horses  and  carts,  etc. 

It  is  not  often  that  the  time  exceeds  nine  hours. 

The  bricks  made  by  this  company  are  rubbed  in  moulding 
sand,  the  same  as  that  used  for  hand-made  bricks,  and  as  the 
bricks  are  damp,  the  sand  adheres  well,  and  in  the  kiln  the 
color  of  the  stock,  after  burning,  is  uniform.  The  descrip¬ 
tion  which  has  been  given  in  the  preceding  chapter,  in 
regard  to  the  burning  of  bricks,  applies  to  machine-made 
bricks  as  well  as  to  hand-made  stock,  with  the  important 
differences:  that  the  firing  at  the  first  stages  should  be 
slower,  and  in  the  setting  or  finish  the  firings  should  be 
more  frequent,  and  heavier. 

Pressed  or  front  bricks  are  produced  by  a  combination  of 
the  hand-made  and  the  machine  processes.  The  finishing 
of  this  class  is  sometimes  done  in  a  press  run  by  steam 
power,  but  the  usual  way  is  to  mould  the  bricks  by  hand 
and  make  them  slightly  larger  than  the  size  of  the  press- 
box  in  which  they  are  to  be  finished. 

The  moulding,  drying,  and  pressing  of  front  bricks  are 
conducted  entirely  under  shelter;  the  hand-press  gang  is 
composed  of  the  three  members,  the  moulder,  who  also  does 
the  pressing,  the  temperer,  who  also  does  the  wheeling  of 
the  clay,  and  the  off-bearer,  who  also  rubs  the  finished  bricks 
with  very  fine  moulding  sand. 

A  day’s  work  for  the  press-gang  is  to  temper  the  clay, 
mould,  press,  and  finish  one  thousand  one  hundred  and 
sixty-seven  bricks.  Pressed  bricks  are  seldom  hacked  on 
edge  in  the  sheds,  but  are  laid  flatwise,  each  pile  being  a 


222 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


separate  one,  and  a  space  of  about  three  inches  is  left  around 
each  hack ;  they  hold  shape  better  in  this  manner  of  drying 
than  if  hacked  on  edge,  and  after  they  have  been  pressed 
they  are  hacked  differently,  as  will  be  explained. 

For  the  information  of  brick-makers  in  distant  places, 
where  pressed  bricks  have  not  been  made,  we  elaborate  fur¬ 
ther  upon  the  general  plan  of  making  them  by  hand. 

It  is  important  that  the  clay  should  be  well  tempered,  the 
clay-tempering-wheel  producing  the  best.  The  bricks  should 
be  moulded  free  of  flaws  or  sand-cracks,  and  the  mould, 
when  in  use,  should  be  kept  well  cleaned.  Those  in  gene¬ 
ral  use  in  Philadelphia  are  known  as  the  “  single  cast-iron 
moulds.’5  The  moulding  sand  is  an  important  item  in 
making  pressed  bricks,  as  the  color  and  smoothness  of  the 
brick  depend  on  it.  A  sieve  having  about  sixty  meshes  to 
the  lineal  inch  is  used  for  preparing  the  sand  for  moulding 
the  bricks.  The  bricks  are  placed  flat  on  the  floor,  and 
when  pretty  dry,  a  light  sieving  of  sand  is  put  over  the 
faces.  They  are  then  turned  over  that  they  may  dry  more 
regularly.  Sheds  built  expressly  for  the  purpose  are  also 
used  for  pressed  bricks.  The  roof  is  made  to  open  so 
as  to  admit  wind  and  sun  when  required  A  good  roof 
for  this  purpose  is  shown  in  Chapter  IV.,  Figs.  14,  18, 
20,  25,  and  26.  Where  the  bricks  dry  too  fast,  a  piece 
of  damp  carpet  can  be  laid  over  them  and  sprinkled  occa¬ 
sionally  with  water.  When  the  bricks  are  in  a  proper  state 
for  pressing — say,  when  they  can  be  handled  without  finger¬ 
marks — the  press  is  taken  to  the  bricks.  Placing  the  press 
on  boards,  the  bricks  are  carefully  put  into  the  mould,  great 
care  being  exercised  that  they  are  not  marked  in  dropping 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


223 


them  in.  There  must  be  no  finger-marks  on  them,  and  all 
“crumbs”  must  be  wiped  off  the  face  of  the  mould;  also,  off 
the  lid.  After  the  bricks  are  pressed  they  are  generally  laid 
flat,  five  or  six  high,  and  when  partly  dry  they  are  slightly 
rubbed  with  the  hand  and  piled  pigeon-hole  shape,  which 
allows  further  drying.  In  some  cases  they  are  piled  in 
squares,  edgewise,  five  or  six  high.  When  dry  enough, 
they  are  placed  on  barrows,  with  strips  of  wood  or  soft  blan¬ 
kets  between  each  course,  and  taken  to  the  shed  to  remain 
until  required  for  burning.  It  is  highly  important  that  the 
mould  lid  and  plate  of  the  press  shall  be  kept  clean  when 
in  use.  Occasionally  raise  the  plunger  plate,  and  wipe  off 
any  dirt  that  may  have  accumulated  on  it,  and  apply  a 
slight  oiling  to  all  the  parts.  When  the  day’s  work  of  press¬ 
ing  is  ended,  make  it  a  fixed  rule  that  the  presser  shall  take 
out  the  plunger,  clean  the  mould  lid  and  plate,  oil  the  sur¬ 
faces  and  replace.  Occasionally,  while  working,  the  presser 
should  clean  the  plunger  and  keep  it  always  well  oiled,  as 
should  be  all  the  wearing  parts  of  the  press. 

The  pressed  bricks  are  usually  set  eight  courses  high  in 
the  kilns,  but  we  have  seen  them  carried  ten  or  twelve 
courses  in  height  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  The  top 
course  does  not  usually  extend  closer  than  the  fourth  course 
from  the  top.  They  are  also  set  differently  from  the  way  in 
which  common  bricks  are  placed,  the  desire  being  to  pre¬ 
serve  the  faces  which  are  to  be  exposed  in  the  wall  of  a 
building.  There  is  not  the  same  amount  of  crossing  or 
“  checkering”  of  this  class  of  bricks  as  in  common  stock. 

The  bottom,  one  middle,  and  the  top  course  are  crossed 


224 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


Fig.  82. 


Common  Bricks 


or  checkered  in  setting  eight  high,  and  Fig.  82  will  show  the 
manner  of  placing  them  in  the  kiln.  The  bricks  are  set  one 
directly  over  the  other  on  edge ;  the  “  cross-ties”  shown  are  to 

hold  the  body  and  keep  the  pressed 
bricks  from  “  wabbling”  or  slanting 
from  either  side.  Great  care  and 
experience  in  setting  as  well  as  in 
burning  kilns  containing  quantities 
of  pressed  bricks  are  very  essential. 
Too  hard  firing  in  settling  the  kiln  is 
liable  to  cause  all  the  pressed  bricks 
to  “  tumble”  or  fall,  and  the  fires  at 
this  stage  are  consequently  lighter 
and  more  frequent  than  when  the 
kiln  contains  only  common  bricks. 
The  pressed  bricks  are  also  handled 
.  much  more  carefully  than  common 

Elevation  showing  manner  J 

of  setting  pressed  bricks  in  the  bricks,  being  taken  up  one  at  a 

klln‘  time,  placed  lightly  on  the  barrows, 

and  are  carefully  handled  and  tossed  also  one  at  a  time  to 

the  setter.  No  extra  money  is  paid  to  the  setting-gangs  for 

handling  pressed  bricks ;  the  work  is  included  in  the  task. 

In  all  stages  the  “  gluts”  as  well  as  the  finished  green 
pressed  bricks  should  be  protected  from  unequal  drying; 
the  sheds  in  which  they  are  made  should  have  movable 
slat  sides,  which  are  closed  during  periods  of  strong  winds. 

Ornamental  bricks  are  usually  made  in  the  same  manner 
as  fine  pressed  bricks,  the  quantities  produced  for  a  day’s 
work  are  less,  but  vary  with  the  size  and  complications  of 


•  Common  Bricks 


i 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


225 


the  designs.  The  hand-presses  in  which  ornamental  bricks 
are  pressed  sometimes  have  larger  mould-boxes  than  for 
ordinary  pressed  bricks,  and  when  small  designs  are  to  be 
pressed,  which  do  not  fill  out  the  mould,  suitable  blocks  of 
hard  wood  are  used  for  “  fillers”  between  the  patterns. 

The  brick-press  shown  in  Fig.  83  can  be  used  for  re¬ 
pressing  edgewise  all  grades  of  front,  shape,  and  ornamental 


Fig.  83. 


bricks,  and  also  for  fire-bricks.  This  press  is  made  by  Mr. 
Isaac  Gregg,  Chicago,  Ill.,  and  the  price  on  board  is  $300. 

Fig.  84  represents  the  Miller  Press,  which  is  made  in 
three  different  styles  for  front  bricks,  and  usually  one  style 
for  fire-bricks.  In  this  make  they  usually  work  with  two 
levers,  one  to  press  the  brick  with  a  downward  movement, 
and  the  other  to  raise  the  brick  level  with  the  top  of  the 
mould.  The  price  of  this  machine  on  board  at  Philadel¬ 
phia,  Pa.,  is  $145. 

15 


226  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA  COTTA. 

Mr.  Miller  invented  and  commenced  the  manufacture  of 
his  press  in  1844.  Not  satisfied  with  his  first  attempt,  he 
has  gradually  improved  on  it  since  that  time,  till  his  skill 
and  labor  have  been  rewarded  by  a  machine  possessing 
many  advantages  and  conveniences.  This  machine  is  man- 
ufactured  of  the  best  material,  and  the  parts  are  smooth 
and  finished  in  a  workmanlike  manner,  thereby  aiding  the 
operator  by  lessening  friction.  Its  other  advantages  are 
many,  being  simple  in  construction,  combining  speed,  dura¬ 
bility,  and  economy.  In  the  manufacture  of  red  brick,  its 
thorough  work  is  perceptible  in  the  handsome  and  even 
shape,  uniform  corners,  solidity,  and  smooth,  straight  sur¬ 
face.  In  fire-brick  it  compresses  the  clay  so  as  to  give 
solidity.  By  the  aid  of  one  of  these  machines  five  thousand 
red  bricks  can  be  compressed  in  ten  hours’  time,  increas- 
ing  them  largely  in  value.  It  can  be  operated  by  one  or 
two  levers,  or  by  lever  and  treadle.  Its  construction  is 
so  plain  that  there  is  nothing  complicated  to  get  out  of 

order,  and  occasion  trouble  and 
expense  for  repairs.  There  is  no 
wood  work  about  it,  being  con¬ 
structed  entirely  of  cast-steel, 
wrought,  and  cast-iron ;  the  box- 
lid  and  plate 

the  best  cast-steel,  and  with 
cast-steel  extension  side  around 
the  plate.  The  reputation  of  this  machine  is  established 
all  over  this  country,  and  there  is  not  a  State  in  the  Union 
to  which  Mr.  Miller  has  not  shipped  more  or  less  of  them. 


being  faced  with 


Fig.  83. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


227 


The  well-known  Carnell  press,  shown  in  Fig.  85,  is  made 
in  three  different  styles,  single  lever,  shown  in  Fig.  85, 
double  lever,  and  lever  and  treadle.  In  the  first  style  one 
lever  presses  the  bricks,  and  raises  them  out  of  the  mould- 
box  ;  the  second  style  has  two  levers,  one  to  press  the 
bricks,  and  the  other  to  raise  them ;  the  third  style  is  the 
same  as  the  first,  except  that  it  has  a  treadle  to  lift  the 
bricks.  The  price  of  this  substantially  built  brick-press  is 
$115,  on  board  at  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


Fig.  86. 


The  new  front  brick-press,  shown  in  Fig.  86,  is  known  as 
the  “  Peerless”  press,  and  it  is  used  exclusively  by  the  Peer¬ 
less  Brick  Co.  at  their  extensive  works  near  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  and  was  patented  in  1882  by  Mr.  John  Crab 


228 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


tree  of  that  city,  and  when  I  first  saw  it  work  was  much 
pleased  with  its  easy  adjustment  and  power  of  execution. 

The  levers,  operated  in  one  direction,  in  connection  with 
other  appliances,  serve  to  press  the  brick,  while  in  the 
mould,  and  in  the  reverse  direction  to  eject  the  pressed 
brick  therefrom. 

The  plunger  or  pressing-head  is  so  constructed  that  when 
its  sides  are  worn  it  may  be  expanded,  and  thus  adjusted  to 
the  proper  dimensions;  and  the  mould  is  also  so  constructed 
that  when  its  sides  are  worn  they  may  be  removed,  made 
true,  and  restored,  and  the  size  of  the  mould  preserved. 

The  operation  of  this  press  is  as  follows:  the  lever  is 
raised  slightly,  in  order  that  the  head  may  be  thrown  from 
the  mould ;  the  plunger  is  then  at  or  about  its  lowest  point, 
and  a  “  glut”  or  green  brick  is  placed  in  the  mould,  and 
the  head  restored  to  its  normal  condition.  The  lever  is 
now  lowered,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  depress  the  frame 
to  which  the  head  is  attached,  and  hold  the  head  firmly  on 
the  top  of  the  mould,  the  lever  turning  on  the  pivotal  con¬ 
nections  with  the  frame  as  axes,  and  simultaneously  with  the 
descent  of  the  frame,  the  links  under  the  frame  are  raised,  thus 
advancing  the  plunger,  and  thereby  pressing  the  brick.  The 
lever  is  now  elevated,  thus  throwing  the  forks  of  the  lever 
by  its  notches  on  the  studs  as  fulcrums,  and  lifting  the  frame. 
The  head  is  now  swung  from  the  mould,  thus  uncovering 
the  top,  as  shown  in  Fig.  86,  and  the  lever  continuing  to 
rise,  reaches  and  bears  against  the  twisted  leg  shown  at  the 
back  of  the  plunger,  and  thus  raises  the  lever,  to  which  it  is 
attached,  the  action  of  which  is  to  elevate  the  upper  section 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


229 


of  the  plunger  to  its  full  extent,  and  thereby  eject  the 
pressed  brick,  which  may  be  readily  removed  from  the  top 
of  the  plunger-plate. 

The  stay-bolt  over  the  top  of  the  head  is  somewhat  bent, 
and  rests  centrally  on  a  bridge  rising  from  the  top  of  the 
head,  and  its  ends  are  passed  through  the  side  pieces  of  the 
frame  and  tightened  there-against  by  nuts,  as  shown  in  the 
cut.  By  this  provision  the  head  and  frame  are  securely  con¬ 
nected,  and  the  head  is  vastly  strengthened  and  enabled  to 
endure  the  severe  strain  to  which  it  is  subjected  during  the 
pressing  operation,  and  provision  is  made  for  tightening  the 
parts  when  required. 

The  guides  of  the  plunger  are  adjustable  laterally, 
whereby  provision  is  made  for  taking  up  the  wear  and 
causing  the  plunger  to  move  true  at  all  times. 

When  the  “gluts”  for  pressed  bricks  are  made  by  ma¬ 
chinery  the  clay  should  be  wet,  and  the  bricks,  when  they 
issue  from  the  machine,  should  be  soft  enough  to  allow  the 
finger  to  be  forced  into  them.  The  gangs  which  re-press 
machine-made  front  bricks  are  composed  of  four  persons,  if 
handled  on  barrows,  and  three  if  handled  in  the  brick 
cars,  the  members  of  the  gang  being  the  presser,  off-bearer, 
and  rubber  or  sander.  The  bricks  are  run  through  in  a 
hurry,  three  thousand  being  a  day’s  work.  Bricks  made 
in  this  way  are  not  usually  suitable  for  the  lower  story 
fronts  of  fine  buildings;  but  when  economy  is  an  object 
they  can  be  used  in  the  upper  portions  where  their  defects 
cannot  so  easily  be  discovered.  This  is  hardly  honest,  but 
a  great  many  neat  fronts  are  thus  put  up  in  neighborhoods 


230  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

that  would  not  justify  the  employment  of  first  quality  and 
high-priced  bricks. 

When  care  is  taken  with  every  stage  of  the  work,  and 

the  “gluts”  are  made  very  soft  and  well  and  thoroughly 

' 

sanded  and  rubbed,  it  is  possible  to  produce  pressed  and 
ornamented  bricks  which  are  not  only  good  in  appearance, 
but  which  are  strong  and  durable,  and  which  can  with 
safety  be  used  in  place  of  first  quality  bricks  for  cornices 
and  other  work  occupying  a  high  position  in  buildings. 

The  illustrations,  Fig.  87,  show  what  excellent  work  can 
be  done  in  this  line  of  manufacture  by  the  use  of  machinery, 
and  some  of  the  relative  positions  in  which  the  different 
designs  may  be  employed  are  also  shown. 

The  fronts  of  the  new  buildings  now  (1884)  in  course  of 
construction  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  the  Pension  Office  of 
the  United  States  Government,  are  being  faced  with  pressed 
bricks  made  by  machinery.  They  are  laid  in  red  mortar, 
and  the  effect  produced  is  good;  the  ornamentation  of  the 
building  is  in  terra-cotta. 

The  bricks  were  produced  in  the  city  of  Washington,  and 
the  enormous  pressure  to  which  they  were  subjected  is 
given  on  page  71,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred  for  fur¬ 
ther  information. 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


231 


CHAPTER  VI. 

FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  AND  OTHER  PRODUCTS, 
AND  THE  NECESSARY  MACHINES,  ETC. 

Fire-clay  is  a  substance  which  differs  very  greatly  from 
the  brick-clays,  and  also  in  many  particulars  from  the  terra¬ 
cotta  clays ;  and  the  best  fire-clay  for  any  special  purpose  is 
that  which  will,  for  the  longest  period  of  time,  effectively 
perform  all  that  can  be  reasonably  required  of  it,  at  the 
least  cost  or  for  repairs.  Like  the  clays  which  have  been 
named,  fire-clays  cannot  be  properly  used  as  found ;  they 
must,  as  it  were,  be  suspended  in  some  infusible  material, 
which  will  be  a  check  upon  the  great  mechanical  effects 
of  the  heat,  and  at  the  same  time  concede  a  certain  amount 
of  expansion  as  well  as  of  contraction,  and  exert  a  positive 
influence  over  both  tendencies,  should  there  be  a  disposition 
in  either  to  go  to  too  great  an  extreme. 

The  materials  employed  for  this  purpose  are  generally 
pulverized  quartz  or  quartz-sand,  finely  ground  old  bricks, 
burnt  clay,  serpentine,  which  is  a  hard  rock,  veined  or  spot¬ 
ted,  in  which  the  colors  are  variously  disposed,  but  the  most 
prominent  are  greens  and  reds;  talc,  which  is  a  mineral, 
occurring  in  granular  and  flaky  conditions ;  graphite  in 
powder,  and  when  there  is  no  fear  from  the  ash,  small  coke 


232  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

is  used ;  but  the  last  should  be  very  cautiously  employed, 
and  only  when  graphite  cannot  be  had,  or  when  it  is  not 
desired  to  use  it  on  account  of  its  high  price. 

When  a  cheap  mixture  is  to  be  made  at  the  place  where 
it  is  to  be  used,  without  previous  burning,  it  is  usually  com¬ 
posed  of  one-fifth  plastic  clay,  and  the  other  four-fifths  of 
burned  clay  or  quartz,  or  it  can  be  varied  to  one-fourth 
meagre  clay  to  three-fourths  burned  clay  or  quartz. 

The  mixture  avoids  contraction,  and  is  the  most  econom- 
ical  compound  that  can  be  constructed  for  many  purposes, 
and  it  is  coming  rapidly  into  use,  even  for  small  blast  fur¬ 
naces  that  are  not  in  constant  or  hard  use. 

The  composition  of  fire-clays  differs  very  materially ;  but 
those  which  contain  the  largest  per  cent,  of  alumina  are  the 
best ;  in  these  there  should  be  not  over  three-fourths  of  one 
per  cent,  of  lime. 

In  a  large  number  of  industries,  an  increase  may  be  made 
in  the  proportion  of  combined  silica,  and  thereby  increase 
the  resistance  to  the  fire ;  but  this  will  answer  and  perform 
the  requirements  only  at  a  low  temperature. 

But  the  greater  the  per  cent,  of  combined  silica  in  intense 
heat,  the  greater  is  the  fusibility,  and  for  all  ware  to  be  so 
employed,  the  longer  should  be  the  exposure  to  the  heat  in 
the  kiln. 

The  refractory  power  of  all  fire-clay  wares  is  greatly 
enhanced  at  very  high  temperatures  by  the  presence  of  a 
large  per  cent,  of  alumina. 

There  should  be  a  perfect  understanding  of  the  difference 
between  combined  silica  and  free  silica.  In  speaking  of  the 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


233 


composition  of  fire-clays,  the  first,  as  has  been  stated,  will 
melt  in  very  high  heats,  in  proportion  to  the  per  cent,  of 
combination;  but  clean,  free  silica,  i.  e.,  in  crystals,  mechan¬ 
ically  combined,  will  not  melt  in  our  melting  heats,  unless 
fluxed. 

Consequently,  a  high  proportion  of  free  silica,  in  the 
absence  of  a  high  per  cent,  of  the  fluxes,  lime,  magnesia, 
alkali,  and  oxide  of  iron,  is  not  near  so  injurious  as  when 
the  silica  is  combined.  Any  additions  in  the  fluxes,  above 
three  and  one-half  per  cent.,  very  quickly  increase  the  fusi¬ 
bility  of  the  clay,  in  the  order  in  which  they  have  been 
named  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  They  are  thought  to 
be  damaging  in  the  following  order,  viz :  magnesia  most, 
then  lime,  next  oxide  of  iron,  and  least  alkali. 

The  average  amount  of  alumina,  silica,  etc.,  contained  in 
the  best  fire-clays  may  be  expressed  in  the  following  table : 


Alumina  .  29.50 

Silica . 58.75 

Lime . 31 

Magnesia . 09 

Iron  oxide . 3.00 

Potash . 1.75 

Soda . 1.00 

Water  combined . 11.50 


There  should  be  no  organic  substances. 

The  table  is  prepared  for  comparing  the  relative  values  of 
fire-clays. 

All  the  above  substances  do  not  usually  appear  in  good 
clays ;  in  some  there  are  none  or  only  traces  of  lime  and 
the  different  fluxes,  and  in  other  clays  there  may  be  a 


234  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

larger  or  smaller  proportion ;  but  the  ingredients  in  all  good 
fire-clays  should  be  somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
averages  given  above. 

But,  as  has  before  been  stated,  any  increase  of  alumina 
intensifies  the  resistance  to  heat  at  a  high  temperature ;  but 
in  a  combination  when  the  alumina  reaches  as  high  as  40.5 
and  the  silica  decreases  to  45,  and  the  hygroscopic  water 
appears  in  about  the  same  proportion  as  the  average  of  com¬ 
bined  water,  then  the  compound  is  probably  china-clay  or 
kaolin. 

According  to  M.  Brogniard,  the  clay  which  is  most  re¬ 
fractory  when  deprived  of  its  hygrometric  water  has  the 
composition:  silica,  57.42;  alumina,  42.58.  Silica  alone 
cannot  be  used  unless  it  be  ground,  and,  having  no  binding 
or  plastic  qualities  like  alumina,  a  small  proportion  of  bind¬ 
ing  material  is  added  to  it. 

For  the  Dinas  fire-brick,  which  is  the  best  substance  to 
resist  heat  alone — the  binding  material  is  lime.  The  Dinas 
bricks  are  sometimes  called  “  stone  bricks,”  and  are  largely 
produced  at  Neath,  in  Glamorganshire,  and  are  much  used 
in  the  construction  of  copper  furnaces  at  Swansea.  The 
materials  of  which  the  bricks  are  made  are  from  quarries  in 
the  neighborhood;  there  are  three  kinds  of  material,  which 
are  faithfully  mixed  together ;  the  composition  of  the  three 
substances  is  as  follows : — 


From  Pendreyn.  From  Dinas. 


Silica . 

.  94.05 

100 

91.95 

Alumina,  with  traces  of  oxide  of  iron 

.  4.55 

traces 

8.05 

Lime  and  magnesia 

• 

traces 

traces. 

98.60 

100 

100.00 

FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


235 


The  bricks  are  made  from  these  quartzose  sandstones, 
which  are  first  heated  in  quantities  of  twelve  or  fifteen  tons 
in  a  Rumford  oven,  and  then  thrown  into  water  to  break 
them  up,  and  then  pulverized  to  a  coarse  powder  between 
iron  rollers.  The  amount  of  lime  required  to  bind  the 
bricks  is  one  and  one-half  per  cent.,  and  sufficient  water  is 
added  to  make  the  mass  slightly  cohere  under  pressure;  the 
joints  between  the  bricks  when  laid  are  filled  with  the  same 
material. 

These  bricks  expand  under  the  action  of  heat,  but  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  expose  them  to  the  action  of  slags  that 
are  rich  in  the  metallic  oxides.  These  fire-bricks  resist  a 
much  greater  heat  than  those  made  from  the  Stourbridge 
clays.  The  Dinas  bricks  will  last  six  weeks  in  the  roof  of 
an  ordinary  reverberatory  furnace  at  a  temperature  which, 
if  it  could  be  measured  by  mercury,  would  be  about  2200° 
C.,  equal  to  3992°  Fahr.,  and  in  that  period  will  be  reduced 
from  nine  to  two  inches  by  abrasion  of  the  flame  and  dust, 
and  partly  from  chipping. 

The  bricks  conduct  the  heat  so  badly  that  at  this  great 
temperature,  which  is  a  bright  white  heat  in  the  interior 
of  the  furnace,  the  exterior  is  not  more  than  pleasantly 
warm  to  the  touch  of  the  hand.  These  bricks  are  carefully 
dried  on  floors  warmed  by  flues  after  being  pressed;  seven 
days’  hard  firing  are  required  for  the  bricks,  and  a  little 
longer  for  cooling  the  kiln. 

The  ash-dust  which  circulates  with  the  gases  is  ordinarily 
a  chief  cause  of  the  wasting  away  of  fire-bricks,  and  in  fur¬ 
naces  where  there  is  no  dust,  such  as  the  Siemens,  they  give 
out  from  weakness. 


236 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


But,  before  describing  their  manufacture,  and  the  care  to 
be  taken  in  their  production,  it  may  be  best  to  examine 
more  particularly  into  the  causes  of  their  destruction  in 
various  positions.  This  may  be  charged  in  their  ordinary 
uses  to  the  following  agents : — 

The  presence  of  extraneous  materials,  such  as  lumps  in 
the  shape  of  fragments  of  lime,  iron-stone,  and  small  peb¬ 
bles  ;  then  the  behavior  of  the  material,  which  at  a  great 
temperature  becomes  a  semi-plastic  red-hot  or  may  be  a 
white-hot  mass  on  the  interior,  and  the  pressure  from  the 
superimposed  structure  distorts  its  form  downwards  and 
gradually  squeezes  out  the  face  of  the  bricks,  which  com¬ 
pels  the  hottest  portions  of  furnaces  and  kilns  to  be  periodi¬ 
cally  relined. 

The  most  refractory  clays  generally  offer  the  greatest 
resistance  to  the  action  of  glass,  and  exhibit  a  parallel 
variation  in  their  power  of  resistance  to  slags,  and  are  on 
the  whole  more  easily  attacked  by  slags  than  by  glass. 

When  the  bricks  line  flues  and  furnaces,  the  fumes  and 
ashes,  continuously  carried  into  contact  with  the  surface  of 
the  lining,  bring  foreign  accessions,  which  gradually  vitrify 
the  face  of  the  lining,  and  then  form  a  viscid  slag-coating. 
This  coating  slowly  but  surely  eats  into  the  interior  of  the 
face  of  the  brick  lining,  at  the  same  time  slowly  creeping 
downwards,  and  clogging  the  flues  and  fire  holes  with  a 
vitreous  mass. 

No  matter  how  refractory  a  brick  is,  the  gradual  fretting 
away  of  the  surface  exposed  from  vitrification,  which  is 
engendered,  is  certain,  as  has  been  explained. 

The  fretting  away  of  the  interior  surface  in  blast  furnaces 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


237 


gradually  enlarges  their  capacity,  as  the  fire-bricks  are  eaten 
away ;  in  this  class  of  furnaces,  the  destruction  gradually 
decreases  from  the  tweers  upwards,  the  portions  opposite  the 
impact  blast  being  distinctly  cut  out  beyond  the  outline  of 
the  enlarged  circumference. 

The  yearly  consumption  of  the  interior  brick-surface  of  a 
blast  furnace  in  constant  and  hard  use  may  be  given  at 
about  from  three  to  four  inches  at  the  tweers,  and  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  toward  the  middle  of  the  furnace. 
The  stability  of  all  fire-brick  masonry  depends  largely  upon 
a  minimum  of  joining  material  being  used;  for  this  reason, 
the  flat  faces  of  all  fire-bricks  should  be  exceedingly  true, 
thereby  allowing  a  proper  jointing  to  be  spread,  which 
counteracts,  in  a  very  great  degree,  in  heavy  firing,  the 
strong  tendency  to  shatter  or  rupture  the  structure. 

Too  much  attention  is  given  to  obtaining  true  faces  to  the 
edges  of  fire-bricks;  now,  as  both  faces  cannot  be  usually 
exposed,  there  are  two  to  select  from  in  the  laying,  with 
every  reasonable  prospect  to  suppose  that  one  of  them  will 
be  good  any  way ;  but  the  flat  surface,  which  is  of  equal  im¬ 
portance,  is  left  to  take  its  chances  of  being  regular  or  not. 
Every  joint  in  a  furnace  has  proportionately  more  to  stand 
than  a  brick ;  if  the  brick  be  in  any  way  rough  on  either  the 
top  or  bottom  flat  surface,  it  will  not  yield  to  the  mechan¬ 
ical  effects  of  the  heat,  and  will  be  gradually  but  certainly 
drawn  slightly  in,  and  be  pushed  very  gradually  back,  dur¬ 
ing  the  heavy  firing  and  changes  of  the  temperature.  There 
is  no  way  to  calculate  this  very  small  movement ;  but  the 
ultimate  effect  is  to  loosen  the  brick,  and  when  one  is 


238 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


loosened,  others  also  gradually  follow.  In  this  manner 
flues  are  sometimes  formed  between  the  fire-brick  lining  and 
the  exterior  wralls,  resulting  in  great  loss,  as  well  as  in  vex¬ 
atious  delays,  oftentimes  in  the  heats. 

There  are  some  very  expensive  constructions  of  fire-brick 
masonry  that  are  too  carelessly  erected ;  material  is  allowed 
to  go  into  the  work  that  is  unsuitable  in  many  ways,  bricks 
varying  in  thickness,  and  with  rough  flat  faces  are  ham¬ 
mered  closely  together  in  many  places,  in  order  to  keep  the 
work  to  the  straight  edge,  or  the  line,  which  latter  is  often 
not  properly  tightened. 

Even  the  tweers  of  great  blast  furnaces  are  often  con¬ 
structed  in  just  such  a  careless  manner,  and  the  proprietors 
allow  this  kind  of  work  to  be  hurried  along  and  negligently 
done. 

There  is  one  important  point  that  should  be  constantly 
remembered  by  all  who  employ  or  produce  fire-clay  wares 
of  the  best  quality,  and  it  is  that  there  is  not  a  single  point 
in  any  stage  of  the  work  of  either  the  production  or  the 
use  of  this  kind  of  material  that  can  be  hurried  in  the  slight¬ 
est  degree. 

Large  furnaces,  and  other-  important  constructions, 
through  which  millions  in  value  are  to  pass,  are  not  the 
class  of  work  that  can  be  erected  like  the  walls  of  an  ordi¬ 
nary  building. 

In  the  erection  of  an  extensive  blast-furnace  it  should  be 
a  first  requirement  to  have  a  number  of  fire-bricks  more 
than  sufficient  to  complete  the  work  on  the  ground  before 
the  fire-brick  masonry  is  allowed  to  be  started.  From 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


239 


these  bricks  a  few  should  be  selected  for  tests  and  reduc¬ 
tions;  the  bricks  should  then  be  passed  through  a  gauge, 
and  those  of  an  exact  thickness  and  having  all  the  faces 
perfectly  true  should  be  culled  from  those  which  did  not 
meet  the  first  requirements,  another  lot  of  a  uniform  thick¬ 
ness  could  be  selected,  and  so  on  to  the  end;  but  at  all 
times  rejecting  those  in  which  the  surfaces  were  not  per¬ 
fectly  smooth  and  true.  In  this  way  the  work  could  be 
completed  and  the  courses  kept  at  uniform  thicknesses,  and 
good  joints  of  mortar  given,  and  there  would  be  no  excuse 
for  hammering  one  brick  down  close  to  another. 

Of  all  the  productions  from  clays  used  in  industry,  ex¬ 
cept  crucibles,  there  is  not  a  material  that  requires  so 
much,  and  which  receives  so  little,  inspection  before  use  as 
fire-bricks. 

The  best  classes  of  this  material  are  very  expensive ;  but 
either  from  over-confidence,  or  from  ignorance,  a  very  large 
amount  of  such  material  finds  its  way  into  many  trying  posi¬ 
tions,  and  for  which  it  has  not  the  slightest  capacity  to  fill. 

The  corroding  influence  of  metals  to  which  the  material 
may  be  exposed,  and  that  of  slag  which  has  been  explained, 
have  to  be  retarded  by  very  careful  preparation,  and  after¬ 
wards  intelligent  manipulation  of  the  moulded  clay  to  pro¬ 
duce  a  denser  brick  as  well  as  surface  smoothness,  great  care 
during  gradual  drying,  added  to  thorough  and  hard  firing. 

In  some  large  works  in  Belgium,  after  exercising  all  the 
ordinary  means  and  precautions  to  secure  careful  preparation 
and  make  the  mixture  perfect,  it  is  submitted  to  a  continued 
succession  of  shocks,  and  by  long  experience  it  has  been 


* 


240  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

demonstrated  that  the  wares  so  made  retain  their  form  per- 
fectly,  while  bricks  and  other  things  produced  of  precisely 
the  same  mixture,  contract. 

The  article  having  been  completed  from  the  thoroughly 
prepared  and  tempered  clay,  it  must  he  again  “  tempered” 
in  the  drying  process.  The  commencement  of  this  is  in  the 
open  air,  but  out  of  all  draught ;  this  should  be  continued 
for  four  days,  and  if  the  ware  dries  too  quickly,  pieces  of 
dampened  woollen  carpet  can  be  laid  on  it  and  occasionally 
lightly  sprinkled  with  water.  Then  the  place  where  the 
drying  is  conducted  is  slightly  heated,  the  temperature  com¬ 
mencing  at  about  75°  Fahr.  If  carpet  has  been  used  it  is 
allowed  to  remain  over  the  wares  for  two  davs  in  this  tem- 
perature,  which  is  continued  for  thirty  days,  and  for  three 
days  at  the  end  of  this  period  it  is  gradually  increased  to 
90°,  and  then  for  three  days  to  110°,  leaving  the  ware  in 
this  for  as  long  as  possible,  all  the  while  preserving  an  active 
ventilation  from  the  top  of  the  drying-room ;  but  being  very 
careful  to  keep  the  temperature  regular.  Furnaces  are  gen¬ 
erally  used  for  this  drying  and  tempering  process ;  but  the 
manner  is  not  a  good  one,  as  there  are  too  many  changes  or 
variations  of  temperature,  especially  in  the  night  time,  and 
during  the  last  six  weeks,  in  which  period  the  temperature 
should  commence  at  150°,  and  gradually  increase  to  190°. 
The  many  gradual  increases  and  long  periods  of  regular 
temperature  can  be  maintained  for  this  process  only  by  a 
good  system  of  hot-water  circulation,  or  of  steam  heating,  in 
both  of  which  there  should  be  an  intelligent  distribution  of 
a  large  heating  surface.  For  one  week  the  final  temperature 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


241 


should  be  lowered  from  190°  to  90°,  which  completes  the 
drying  and  tempering  process. 

It  is  not  often  that  bricks  require  or  receive  much  care 
and  for  so  extended  a  period ;  but  crucibles  and  retorts 
demand  it,  and  the  common  and  rapid  destruction  of  them 
is  largely  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  do  not  get  it.  That 
this  slow  process  of  tempering  greatly  improves  the  refrac¬ 
tory  nature  of  the  article,  and  that  there  is  great  econ¬ 
omy  in  it,  have  been  clearly  proved  by  long  experience. 
From  actual  experiments  in  crucible  works  it  has  been  found 
that  crucibles  produced  from  exactly  the  same  mixture,  and 
carefully  tempered  for  a  period  of  from  seven  to  nine 
months,  last  fully  four  times  as  long  as  those  receiving  only 
about  two  months  of  tempering. 

All  of  which  clearly  demonstrates  that  the  older  and 
more  carefully  all  articles  of  this  class  are  tempered,  the 
longer  and  more  effective  will  be  the  period  of  their  use. 

An  extended  and  thorough  period  of  drying  is  highly 
desirable  for  many  employments  of  this  class  of  wares  in 
zinc  distilleries ;  as  for  zinc  retorts,  the  material  is  simply 
dried,  and  not  burned  in  the  kiln. 

Sometimes  a  compound  composed  of  36  granite,  40  white 
lead,  15  flint,  and  5  glass  is  applied  to  the  one  exposed  face 
of  the  ware,  and  converted  into  a  glaze. 

The  unsuitable  qualities  and  careless  preparation  of  clay 
intended  for  use  in  this  class  of  retorts  have  done  much  to 
hinder  advancement,  and  destroy  the  results  of  experiments 
in  the  production  of  zinc. 

Dr.  Isaac  Lawson  had  many  drawbacks  in  his  native 
16 


242  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

country,  Scotland,  from  this  cause,  in  experiments  for  the 
manufacture  of  zinc  from  calamine ;  but  he  finally  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  his  invention,  and  by  1737  had  it  in  successful 
operation  in  England. 

The  first  zinc  manufactured  in  the  United  States  was  pro¬ 
duced  one  century  later,  in  1838,  at  the  U.  S.  Arsenal  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  from  the  red  oxide  of  New  Jersey. 

The  zinc  was  for  the  manufacture  of  the  brass  designed  ! 
for  use  in  the  standard  weights  and  measures  ordered  by 
Congress ;  but  the  experiment  was  discouraging  as  well  as 
expensive. 

The  New  Jersey  Zinc  Co.,  in  1850,  regularly  commenced 
its  manufacture  from  the  ore ;  but  from  the  chemical  action 
of  the  ore  upon  the  clay  of  the  retorts,  the  Belgian  method, 

which  was  the  first  one  they  adopted,  proved  a  complete 

/ 

failure. 

In  the  franklinite,  the  oxide  of  iron,  associated  with  the 
zinc  ores,  formed  a  fusible  silicate  with  the  silex  of  the  clay, 
which  was  extremely  injurious.  From  about  the  same 
cause,  in  1856,  Matthiessen  and  Hegeler  made  as  great  a 
failure  of  the  Silesian  plan  at  the  works  of  the  Lehigh  Co. 

The  experiments  of  John  Watson,  at  Camden,  N.  J.,  as 
well  as  a  patent  obtained  by  John  Wetherill,  of  Bethlehem, 
Penna.,  miscarried,  mainly  from  the  same  cause. 

Mr.  Wetherill  finally  obtained  a  mixture  of  suitable  clay,  j 
and  by  very  careful  preparation,  drying,  and  tempering, 
upright  retorts  were  constructed,  which  proved  sufficiently 
refractory. 

This  stimulated  the  Lehigh  Zinc  Co. ;  they  took  a  new 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


243 


lease  of  life,  returned  to  the  Belgian  furnace,  and  their 
works  at  Bethlehem,  Penna.,  have  since  been  in  successful 
operation. 

The  material  used  in  the  construction  of  the  arches,  as 
well  as  walls  of  large  glass  ovens,  is  best  produced  from 
the  Stourbridge  or  similar  clay,  which  is  carefully  shaped 
into  large  slabs,  and  faithfully  dried  for  more  than  a  year ; 
but  it  is  not  burned  in  the  kiln. 

As  the  plasticity  and  shrinking  of  clay  are  of  importance 
in  this  line  of  pottery  productions,  probably  no  better  ex¬ 
planation  of  these  properties  can  be  made  than  that  given 
by  Bischof  in  regard  to  the  plasticity,  and  that  by  Aron  in 
regard  to  the  latter  quality,  and  I  shall  embody  them  here : 

The  plasticity  of  clay,  or  its  power  of  yielding  with  water 
a  mass  that  may  be  moulded,  is  of  great  importance  in  a 
practical  point  of  view,  and  interesting  as  a  subject  of  sci¬ 
entific  inquiry. 

Aluminium  hydrate,  like  silicic  acid,  is  capable  of  assum¬ 
ing  the  gelatinous  form,  in  which,  owing  to  the  peculiar 
arrangement  of  the  atoms,  these  compounds  are  able  to 
take  up  a  large  quantity  of  water,  swelling  out  to  an  extra¬ 
ordinary  degree,  and  thus  enveloping  or  binding  together 
sandy  or  earthy  matters  in  a  fine  state  of  division.  On  re¬ 
moving  the  water  by  drying,  the  original  plastic  mass 
shrivels  up  ;  this  is  termed  shrinking. 

Either  on  drying  in  the  air,  or  on  burning,  the  atoms  of 
clay  approach  one  another  more  closely,  the  accompanying 
admixed  constituents  also  at  the  same  time  being  drawn 
together. 


244 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


An  increase  of  density  and  diminution  of  bulk  thus 
occur. 

The  capacity  for  absorbing  water  in  different  clays  varies 
as  greatly  as  their  plasticity,  which  increases  with  their 
power  or  tendency  to  crumble  (possibly  with  the  formation 
of  aluminium  hydrate).  Meagre  clays  readily  absorb  water, 
and  attain  the  desired  degree  of  plasticity ;  “  fat”  clays,  on  1 
the  contrary,  become  very  friable.  The  former  become  softer 
by  working,  the  fat  clays  stiffer.  Many  fat  clays  exhibit  the  i 
phenomenon  technically  known1  as  “water  stiffness,”  i.  <?., 
when  softened  with  a  certain  quantity  of  water,  they  have 
no  inclination  readily  to  absorb  more. 

Shortness  or  meagreness  depends  more  upon  the  presence 
of  undisintegrated  mineral  particles  than  on  that  of  sand ;  a 
clay  rich  in  sand  may,  however,  be  fat,  but  one  rich  in  unre¬ 
duced  mineral  matter  never  can  be. 

By  gradual  drying  at  a  temperature  increasing  to  130°, 
the  weighed  portion  of  clay  being  placed  upon  a  glass  plate, 
and  two  parallel  marks  cut  upon  it,  and  the  distance  be¬ 
tween  the  marks  repeatedly  measured,  it  was  found  that  the 
shrinking  did  not  continue  until  the  clay  was  quite  dry, 
but  ceased  before  this  point  was  attained. 

To  a  certain  point,  the  shrinking  exactly  expressed  the 
loss  of  water ;  at  this  point,  it  suddenly  stopped,  just  as  the 
clay  particles  came  into  contact.  Aron  terms  this  point  the 
“  limit  of  shrinking,”  and  distinguishes  the  water  dissipated 
to  this  point  as  the  “  water  of  shrinking,”  and  that  subse¬ 
quently  driven  off  as  “  water  of  porosity.”  The  sum  of 
the  two  is  total  water. 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


245 


The  cubical  amounts  of  shrinking  of  a  pasty  mass  of  clay 
were  found  to  be  equal  to  the  volumes  of  water  evaporated. 
The  proportion  of  pores  in  the  dry  clay  is  constant,  i.  e., 
independent  of  the  water  originally  contained.  From  the 
fact  that  the  proportion  of  pores  in  several  chemically  differ¬ 
ent  clays  is  nearly  equal,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  smaller 
atoms  of  clay  have  a  regular  spherical  shape.  This  view 
is  confirmed  by  microscopic  observations. 

In  a  plastic  mass  of  clay  there  is  thus  a  vast  number  of 
these  little  spheres  at  equal  distances,  suspended  in  water. 
The  distance  between  these  particles  is  so  small  that  the 
attraction  between  them  is  considerable,  and  so  a  system  of 
capillary  tubes  is  formed,  in  which  the  expulsion  of  water  by 
pressure  is  so  opposed,  that  neither  the  power  of  attraction 
of  the  spherical  atoms  for  one  another,  nor  their  vertical 
downward  pressure,  will  permit  the  water  to  penetrate 
through  the  tubes.  Plasticity  commences  with  increase  of 
the  distance  between  clay  atoms,  and  ceases  when  that 
increase  has  attained  a  certain  amount.  In  shrinking,  as 
water  evaporates  on  the  surface,  a  fresh  supply  is  drawn 
from  the  interior  of  the  mass  through  the  fine  capillary  tubes 
mentioned  above,  the  particles  approximating  throughout 
the  whole  mass,  in  obedience  to  their  power  of  attraction ; 
and  this  process  continues  until  the  atoms  come  into  con¬ 
tact,  and  then  room  for  water  is  afforded  only  in  the  spaces 
between  the  particles  (water  of  porosity).  In  meagre  clays 
these  fine  spherical  atoms  envelop  the  irregular  -  shaped 
particles  of  foreign  matter.  On  trying  the  effect  of  addi¬ 
tions  of  very  fine  sand  to  some  washed  clay,  it  was  found 


246 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


that,  to  a  certain  point,  the  shrinking  power  of  the  clay  in¬ 
creased  with  its  progressive  meagreness  (the  water  -being 
constant),  and  the  porosity  decreased.  This  point  is  termed 
the  “  point  of  greatest  density”  of  the  mass. 

From  the  point  of  greatest  density,  further  impoverishing 
diminishes  the  shrinking  for  an  equal  amount  of  water  in 
the  pores,  but  increases  the  porosity. 

Sometimes  refuse  materials  may  be  converted  into  a  pass¬ 
able  quality  of  fire-bricks ;  the  material  alone  has  no  plas¬ 
ticity,  but  possesses  quick  drying  qualities. 

The  refuse  from  the  China-Clay  Works  of  Devonshire,  in 
England,  is  satisfactorily  used  for  this  purpose.  After  the 
kaolin  has  been  washed  out,  the  quartz  and  mica  are  mixed 
with  a  small  portion  of  fat  clay,  thoroughly  tempered  in  the 
pug-mill,  and  moulded  into  bricks.  They  are  found  to  re¬ 
sist  the  effects  of  heat  very  well,  and  are  commonly  employed 
in  the  construction  of  some  classes  of  metallurgical  works. 

In  England,  the  lining  for  Bessemer  convertors  is  often 
produced  by  mixing  pulverized  Sheffield  sandstone  with  two 
and  one  half  per  cent,  of  alumina  and  oxide  of  iron. 

The  introduction  of  the  Bessemer  process  for  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  cast-steel,  and  of  the  Siemen’s  gas-furnace  into 
countries  which  are  but  poorly  supplied  with  fire-resisting 
materials,  has  developed  the  difficulty  of  securing  bricks 
of  a  sufficiently  refractory  character  to  withstand  the  ex¬ 
tremely  high  degree  of  heat  exhibited  in  the  melting 
chamber,  as  well  as  the  sudden,  and  often  violent,  altera¬ 
tions  in  various  other  portions  of  the  furnaces. 

In  many  portions  of  this  country  and  in  England,  there 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


247 


is  not  a  great  deal  of  trouble  in  meeting  these  demands ; 
but  in  supplying  less  favored  countries  and  colonies,  Mr. 
Joseph  Khern,  the  well-known  Austrian  metallurgist,  gives 
a  method  for  obviating  this  difficulty. 

The  plan  which  he  has  introduced  for  the  manufacture  of 
these  silicious  bricks  is  an  excellent  one,  and  the  material 
produced  he  describes  as  being  much  superior  to  any  other 
refractory  product  obtainable  in  Austria. 

The  chief  ingredient  employed  is  quartz,  which  must  be 
of  the  highest  degree  of  purity,  especial  care  and  watchful¬ 
ness  being  exercised  to  reject  all  such  portions  as  show  any 
admixture  of  iron  or  copper  pyrites,  carbonate  of  lime,  or 
even  mica  or  feldspar.  The  preparation  is  similar  to  that 
observed  in  the  manufacture  of  Dinas,  and  the  silicious  fire¬ 
bricks  made  at  Stolberg,  near  Aix. 

The  quartz,  having  been  selected  in  the  manner  described, 
is  heated  in  quantities  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  tons  in  a 
Rumford  oven,  or  a  continuous  kiln  as  for  lime  may  be  used. 
At  the  end  of  twelve  hours,  having  reached  a  full  red  heat, 
it  is  thrown  into  water ;  the  best  fragments  are  then  selected 
and  afterwards  cleaned  by  a  simple  jigging  process,  and  then 
subsequently  crushed  under  a  tilt-hammer  until  sufficiently 
fine  to  pass  through  a  sieve  having  sixty  holes  to  the  square 
inch,  which  leaves  the  particles  coarse  and  sharp. 

Two  varieties  of  fat  clay  are  used  to  bind  the  coarsely- 
pulverized  quartz ;  the  clays  differ  slightly  in  plasticity,  and 
are  very  carefully  prepared  by  thorough  weathering,  pulver¬ 
ization  under  light  stamp  heads,  and  fine  grinding  under 


248  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

edge  rollers;  a  final  sifting  is  performed  through  a  very  fine 
sieve  of  six  hundred  apertures  to  the  square  inch. 

The  tilt-hammer  used  for  pulverizing  the  quartz  weighs 
two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  and  is  capable  of  crushing 
three  and  one-half  tons  of  the  burned  quartz  in  twelve 
hours. 

In  selecting  the  quartz  the  purest  quality  is  reserved  for 
the  first  quality  of  bricks,  which  have  to  resist  the  greatest 
temperature  and  sudden  changes ;  while  the  second  and 
third  classes  of  bricks  are  made  for  less  exposed  positions, 
and  are  composed  chiefly  of  the  remains  of  bricks  which 
have  been  once  used,  but  again  pulverized  and  sifted  afresh. 

The  following  are  the  compounds  employed  for  the  differ¬ 
ent  classes  of  bricks:  First  class,  16  parts  of  quartz  to  1  of 
plastic  clay,  or  14  parts  of  quartz  to  1  of  leaner  clay:  Sec¬ 
ond  class,  16  parts  of  ground  bricks  of  the  first  class  to  1 
of  clay :  Third  class,  8  parts  of  ground  bricks  of  the  second 
and  third  classes  to  1  of  clay. 

The  third  class  bricks  are  made  more  with  an  idea  for 
their  employment  in  portions  of  the  furnace  requiring 
greater  mechanical  strength  than  fire -resisting  qualities. 
The  materials  are  first  mixed  together  in  a  dry  condition  on 
a  large,  clean,  and  tight  platform  of  wood,  and  are  then 
thrown  into  a  tight  wooden  pugging-box,  six  feet  square 
and  nine  inches  deep.  In  this  box  the  dry  mixture  should 
be  about  six  inches  deep,  and  be  thoroughly  incorporated 
by  kneading  with  water  and  treading  under  men’s  feet,  and 
occasionally  turning  over  the  mass  with  shovels,  care  being 
taken  not  to  draw  splinters  from  the  wooden  box  into  the 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


249 


clay.  A  sufficient  quantity  of  water  must  be  added  to  allow 
the  mixture  to  be  worked  into  a  ball  between  the  fingers 
without  crumbling. 

The  second  and  \hird  class  bricks  are  formed  in  open 
moulds,  the  pug  being  beaten  down  by  a  metal  rammer  of 
about  four  and  one-half  pounds  weight ;  the  first  class,  how¬ 
ever,  are  subject  to  a  pressure  of  about  three  and  one-half 
tons  to  the  square  inch  during  a  period  of  three-quarters  of 
an  hour  before  they  are  removed  from  the  moulds. 

The  drying  is  done  in  chambers  through  which  a  current 
of  air  passes,  at  the  ordinary  temperature  in  summer,  but 
artificially  warmed  in  winter.  The  bricks  are  fit  for  burn¬ 
ing  in  seven  days.  The  kilns  are  rectangular  chambers, 
each  having  two  step  grate  fireplaces  in  one  of  the  shorter 
sides,  and  a  flue  communicating  with  a  high  chimney  at  the 
opposite  end.  The  capacity  is  small,  being  only  about 
twenty-five  hundred  bricks.  As  soon  as  the  kiln  is  filled 
the  charging  opening  is  partly  closed,  and  a  gentle  fire  is 
kept  in  the  grates,  the  damper  in  the  flue  being  closed. 

At  the  end  of  thirty-six  hours  the  charging  hole  is  en¬ 
tirely  closed,  and  the  draft  is  stimulated  by  opening  the 
damper  in  the  flue  inch  by  inch  at  intervals,  until  at  the 

end  of  seven  tv-two  hours  the  whole  of  the  bricks  have  at- 
•/ 

tained  a  strong  white  heat.  The  fires  are  then  removed, 
the  damper  closed,  the  grates  filled  with  sand,  and  cracks 
that  may  have  been  discovered  in  the  kiln  are  carefully 
luted  or  smeared  over  with  soft  mud. 

The  charging  opening  should  also  receive  careful  atten¬ 
tion  and  be  faithfully  daubed.  After  standing  in  this  way 


250  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

for  thirty-six  hours,  the  charging  place  is  gradually  opened, 
and  in  from  sixty  to  seventy-five  hours  the  burned  bricks 
may  be  removed. 

In  the  United  States,  superior  qualities  of  fire-clays  are 
found  in  various  localities.  The  fire-bricks  most  esteemed 
are  those  made  from  the  “Amboy  clay”  of  New  Jersey,  and 
the  Mt.  Savage  fire-bricks  made  at  Mt.  Savage,  Md.  The 
first  are  produced  from  a  cretaceous  clay,  which  is  first 
burned  in  a  kiln,  its  plasticity  being  lost  in  the  process, 
and  resulting  in  what  is  known  as  “cement;”  the  second 
or  Mt.  Savage  bricks  are  produced  from  two  qualities  or 
varieties  of  carboniferous  fire-clay,  one  of  which  has  in  its 
natural  state  the  properties  of  the  “cement”  just  mentioned. 
It  is  non-plastic,  and  is  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
“Amboy  clay.” 

At  Mineral  Point,  Tuscarawas  County,  Ohio,  a  clay  nearly 
similar  to  the  Mt.  Savage  clay  is  found;  its  appearance  and 
properties  are  about  the  same ;  it  is  non-plastic,  and  is  treated 
in  the  same  manner. 

For  all  these  clays  the  “  cement”  is  coarsely  ground, 
mixed  with  from  one-sixth  to  one-tenth  plastic  clay,  gradu¬ 
ally  dried  and  tempered  and  then  hard-burned. 

The  fire-bricks  made  from  the  clay  of  the  coal-measures 
of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Missouri  are  also  held 
in  high  esteem.  In  some  portions  of  the  State  of  Michigan 
a  very  fair  quality  of  bricks  is  produced  from  non-plastic 
clays. 

Cheaper  bricks,  and  of  somewhat  inferior  quality,  but  yet 
adapted  to  many  purposes  for  which  fire-bricks  are  used,  are 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


251 


or  may  be  made  in  a  great  number  of  localities,  as  reason¬ 
ably  good  fire-clay  is  an  abundant  substance  in  this  country. 

Fire-clay  beds  are  fine  sediments  which  accumulate  at  the 
bottoms  of  shallow  pools  of  water,  subsequently  filled  up 
with  growing  vegetation. 

The  roots  of  aquatic  plants  have  penetrated  this  clay-bed 
and  extracted  generally  its  potash,  soda,  lime,  iron,  etc.,  and 
have  removed  such  a  percentage  of  silica  as  to  leave  it  with 
a  larger  relative  quantity  of  alumina  than  it  had  before 
being  subjected  to  their  action.  In  this  manner  they  have 
extracted  from  it  its  more  fusible  or  fluxing  ingredients,  and 
have  left  it  its  peculiar  property  of  remaining  unchanged  at 
a  high  temperature. 

Many  beds  of  peat  have  underlying  them  clays  very  like 
our  fire-clays,  and  in  such  circumstances  we  may  plainly  see 
the  formation  of  fire-clays  progressing. 

In  this  country  we  have  two  varieties  of  fire-clay,  the  one 
non-plastic  and  particularly  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of 
first  quality  of  fire-bricks,  and  the  other  plastic,  and  used 
for  the  production  of  an  inferior  quality  of  fire-bricks,  and 
the  production  of  pottery,  terra-cotta,  glass  pots,  etc. 

In  the  first  class  are  those  that  have  been  mentioned,  to 
which  should  be  added  that  at  New  Lisbon,  Ohio.  To  the 
second  class  belong  the  fire-clays  of  the  coal-measutes,  which 
differ  greatly  among  themselves  as  regards  purity  and  excel¬ 
lence,  but  which  answer  for  secondary  purposes,  and  are 
very  extensively  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  all  classes 
of  terra-cotta  and  stone-ware. 


252 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


The  analyses  given  below  are  of  some  of  the  best  known 
qualities  of  fire-clays.  No.  1  is  of  the  Strourbridge  clays  of 
England,  to  which  reference  has  several  times  been  made  in 
this  chapter.  No.  2  is  from  Mt.  Savage,  Md.,  No.  3  is  from 
Mineral  Point,  Ohio;  both  of  the  last-named  being  non¬ 
plastic.  No.  4  is  from  Port  Washington,  Ohio,  and  No.  5 
is  from  Springfield,  Ohio,  the  two  last-mentioned  being 
plastic  clays. 

Analyses  of  Fire-Clays. 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

No.  5. 

Alumina 

19  to  38 

35.90 

37.80 

33.85 

21.70 

Silica 

Iron  Oxide  . 

63  to  70 

2  to  0.7 

50.45 

1.50 

49.20 

59.95 

70.70 

Lime 

Oto  0.7 

0.13 

0.40 

2.05 

0.40 

Magnesia 

Potash  . 

Oto  0.2 

0  to  0.3 

0.20 

0.10 

0.55 

0.37 

Water  . 

10  to  16 

12.74 

11.70 

5.34 

5.45 

For  analyses  of  the  English  Dorsetshire  and  North  De¬ 
vonshire  fire-clays,  see  chapter  on  Terra-Cotta. 

To  be  acquainted  with  the  chemical  qualities  of  the  fire¬ 
clays  is  of  course  useful  in  their  manipulation ;  but  the  phy¬ 
sical  tests  of  this  class  of  clays  are  of  vastly  more  impor¬ 
tance  ;  analyses  answer  well  for  comparisons  in  theory ;  but 
the  physical  trials  and  results  are  the  ones  which  govern  in 
their  employment  in  industry. 

The  properties  of  bodies  largely  depend  upon  the  mode 
of  grouping  of  the  atoms  ;  clays  may  be  of  the  same  chemi¬ 
cal  constituents,  and  yet  when  put  to  the  physical  test  be  of 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


253 


directly  opposite  refractory  qualities ;  while  clays  of  greatly 
different  composition  may  prove  to  be  about  equally  refrac¬ 
tory.  The  practical  manufacturer  does  not  usually  care  at 
all  about  the  chemical  constituents  or  composition  of  fire¬ 
clays  ;  he  seeks,  or  should  seek,  for  that  material  which 
yields  the  best  results  in  actual  use. 

If  he  wants  a  brick  to  yield  slowly  to  the  corrosive  influ¬ 
ence,  which  has  been  explained  in  this  chapter,  a  simple 
test  to  apply  is,  to  see  the  number  of  times  in  which  it  can 
be  melted  with  oxide  of  lead  and  not  be  eaten  through. 
In  fire-brick  constructions  the  use  of  joints  of  clay  con¬ 
taining  free  silicic  acid  (quartz)  should  be  avoided,  which 
can  be  done  by  previously  saturating  the  material  with  a 
basic  hurt  clay. 

For  practical  purposes  the  relative  proportions  of  alumina 
and  silica,  which  some  manufacturers  have  laid  such  undue 
stress  upon  as  indicating  heat-resisting  quality,  are  of  but 
small  moment,  as  both  these  constituents,  whether  occurring 
in  combinations  or  as  silicates  of  alumina,  or  as  free  alu¬ 
mina  and  silica,  are  essentially  the  real  refractory  elements 
of  good  fire-bricks;  being  unvitrifiable  of  themselves  except¬ 
ing  when  associated  with  the  alkalies,  lime,  or  oxide  of  iron. 

The  plastic  character  of  refractory  clays  has  also  but 
limited  influence  on  their  suitability  for  fire-brick  manufac¬ 
ture  when  the  bricks  are  properly  moulded,  excepting  ex¬ 
treme  plasticity,  which  is  usually  accompanied  by  excessive 
contractibility  and  vitrifiability,  which  are  of  course  very 
prejudicial.  Take  it  as  a  general  rule,  but  few  clays  or 
materials  used  in  the  production  of  fire-clay  wares  are  either 


254 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


over-plastic  or  insufficiently  plastic  to  prevent  their  being 
moulded  by  the  dry-clay  process  out  of  nearly  dry  pulverized 
clay.  If  too  plastic,  they  can  be  dried  by  the  wind  or  sun, 
which  greatly  lessens  their  plasticity ;  if  this  is  not  sufficient, 
the  clavs  can  be  burned  in  an  oven  or  kiln,  and  those  which 
are  not  plastic  can  be  lightly  sprinkled  with  water  before 
being  subjected  to  pressure.  I  have  in  Chapter  V.  strongly 
opposed  this  process  of  manufacture  for  all  bricks  to  be  used 
for  purposes  of  engineering  or  architectural  construction, 
where  strength  is  an  essential ;  but  the  present  is  a  very 
different  employment,  the  quality  here  necessary  not  being 
strength,  but  resistance  to  heat. 

Many  clays  which  have  but  poor  refractory  qualities  when 
tempered  in  a  pug-mill  can  by  this  process  of  dry-clay 
moulding  be  greatly  improved ;  the  clay  should  be  tho¬ 
roughly  dried  in  thin  layers,  in  the  sun  if  possible,  before 
pulverizing.  Refractory  clays  of  still  lower  grades  may  be 
greatly  improved,  so  as  to  resist  a  very  high  temperature,  by 
treating  with  acids,  and  then  thoroughly  drying  and  after¬ 
wards  moulding  them  by  the  dry-clay  process. 

There  is  a  preponderating  quantity  of  silica  in  the  English 
coal-measure  fire-clays  when  compared  with  the  tertiary 
clays  of  Devonshire  and  Dorsetshire,  in  which  a  larger  pro¬ 
portion  of  alumina  appears,  as  is  shown  by  the  analyses  of 
a  great  number  of  these  clays. 

We  find  coupled  with  the  latter  property,  in  the  tertiary 
clays,  tenacity  and  plasticity,  and  necessarily  greater  con¬ 
traction  both  in  the  processes  of  drying  and  burning,  and 
when  this  is  excessive  the  shrinkage  is  curtailed  by  a  tho- 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


255 


rough  incorporation  with  clean  sand,  burned  clay  which  has 
been  pulverized,  or  sherds.  About  two  per  cent,  is  the 
average  shrinkage  during  burning  of  the  bricks  made  from 
the  several  coal-measure  fire-clays ;  this  percentage  of  con- 
tractibility  of  course  excludes  that  which  occurs  during  the 
process  of  drying.  The  bricks  which  formed  the  basis  of 
the  calculation  from  which  this  average  was  computed,  were 
made  from  nearly  dry  pulverized  clay. 

The  average  contractibility  during  the  process  of  burning 
of  the  fire-bricks  produced  from  the  tertiary  fire-clays  is  very 
much  greater  than  that  of  the  coal-measure  clays. 

Tenacity  of  texture  in  a  fire-brick  material  is  a  mechani¬ 
cal  condition,  which,  cceteris  paribus,  assists  vitrification,  a 
coarse  open  body  being  much  more  refractory  than  a  close 
homogeneous  brick  of  similar  composition. 

A  well-manufactured  fire-brick  should  be  of  a  pale  cream 
or  clear  buff  color,  uniform  throughout  its  mass,  and  burnt 
to  the  full  extent  of  its  contractibility. 

The  chemical  changes  which  take  place  in  the  burning 
consist,  first,  of  the  destruction  of  the  disseminated  carbo¬ 
naceous  matter,  the  dehydration  of  the  silicates  of  alumina, 
destroying  their  plastic  character,  and  the  decomposition  of 
the  disseminated  carbonate  or  protoxide  of  iron,  converting 
it  into  anhydrous  sesquioxide,  to  which  the  yellow  color 
of  the  burned  bricks  is  due. 

Should  the  burning  be  carried  to  a  very  high  state  of  vit¬ 
rification  the  yellow  tint  is  replaced  by  a  dull  gray,  due  to 
the  partial  reduction  of  the  sesquioxide  of  iron  and  its  con¬ 
version  into  silicate  of  protoxide  or  minutely  disseminated 


256 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


particles  of  metallic  iron.  Any  alkalies  also  present  form 
vitreous  combinations  with  the  silica  during  the  latter  stages 
of  the  burning. 

But  the  paleness  of  color  of  a  fire-brick  is  not  at  all  times 
a  safe  indication  of  the  absence  of  iron,  as  the  presence  of  a 
large  proportion  of  carbonaceous  matter  in  the  clay  tends  to 
bleaching  by  the  reduction  of  the  coloring  sesquioxide  to 
lower  oxide  preserved  as  a  silicate  in  a  comparatively  color¬ 
less  condition.  Then,  again,  the  presence  of  lime  and  the 
other  alkaline  earths,  which  are  disadvantageous  fluxing 
elements,  will  check  the  coloring  power  of  a  large  percent¬ 
age  of  oxide  of  iron  by  the  formation  of  a  pale  double  sili¬ 
cate  of  lime  and  iron.  This  is  largely  taken  advantage  of 
in  the  manufacture  of  buff-colored  building  bricks,  and  I  am 
also  very  sorry  to  add  in  the  production  of  buff-colored  terra¬ 
cotta,  by  mixing  ground  chalk  with  ferruginous  clays  which 
would  otherwise  burn  a  dark  red  color. 

A  properly  burned  brick,  uniform  throughout  its  mass, 
can  be  obtained  only  by  very  slow  progressive  firing;  a 
broken  brick  which  has  been  too  quickly  burned,  though 
pale  on  the  surface,  presents  a  darker  central  patch  and 
concentric  rings  of  various  shades  of  color,  due  principally 
to  the  different  states  of  oxidation  of  the  iron,  and  partly  to 
the  presence  of  unconsumed  carbonaceous  matter;  but  the 
chemistry  of  this  color  diversification  is  not  perfectly  known. 

In  Great  Britain  the  association  of  coal  with  the  fire-clays 
of  the  carboniferous  formation  has  localized  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  fire-bricks,  and  by  far  the  greater  proportion  are 
produced  in  the  coal-measure  districts,  especially  at  Strour- 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


257 


bridge,  justly  celebrated  for  producing  a  highly  refractory 
brick,  Brosley,  Benthall,  Madeley,  and  Coalbrookdale  in  the 
Shropshire  coal-field,  and  in  the  Midland,  Yorkshire,  North 
and  South  Wales,  Durham,  and  the  Scotch  coal-fields;  but 
in  recent  years  the  area  of  fire-brick  manufacture  has  greatly 
broadened. 

There  has  been  since  1850  an  extensive  production  from 
the  eocene  clays  in  the  neighborhood  of  Poole  and  Ware- 
ham  in  Dorsetshire ;  and  a  much  more  limited  supply  from 
the  miocene  between  Bovey  Tracey  and  Newton  Abbot  in 
Devonshire. 

At  a  still  more  recent  period  Cornwall  has  become  the 
seat  of  the  manufacture,  where,  as  at  Calstock,  Tregoning 
Hill  near  Breage,  St.  Ednor  near  St.  Columb,  and  Lee 
Moor,  fire-bricks  of  good  quality  are  made  from  china-clay 
refuse  and  disintegrated  granite,  as  has  been  before  observed 
in  this  chapter. 

Cornwall  was  one  of  the  first  seats  of  china-clay  min¬ 
ing  between  the  years  1730  and  1750,  and  in  1862  the 
Tregoning  Hill  Co.  commenced  to  make  fire-bricks  and  tiles 
from  the  refuse  of  the  clays,  taking  about  two-thirds  of  silica 
and  one-third  of  mica,  which  are  mixed  thoroughly  in  a 
pug-mill,  moulded  by  hand,  and  then  burned  in  round 
kilns,  holding  about  sixteen  thousand  bricks.  A  very  supe¬ 
rior  quality  of  bricks  is  made  from  the  “  slopes”  which  are 
used  by  founders,  smelters,  gas  companies,  etc.,  the  source  of 
the  material  being  the  decomposed  granite  of  which  the 
Tregoning  Hill  consists.  The  Hingston  Down  fire-clay 
deposit,  near  Calstock,  supplying  the  Calstock  fire-brick 
17 


258  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

works,  the  Phoenix  works,  and  the  Tamar  works,  in  the 
same  neighborhood,  consists  of  a  range  of  decomposed 
granite,  with  an  average  width  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile, 
running  east  and  west  for  three  and  one-half  miles,  extend¬ 
ing  to  an  ascertained  depth  of  from  three  hundred  and  fifty 
to  four  hundred  feet,  and  intersected  by  mineral  lodes.  The 
Calstock  Fire-Brick  Co.  commenced  operations  in  1870,  and 
produced  from  this  decomposed  granite,  fire-bricks  of  a  very 
superior  and  highly  refractory  character. 

Another  large  source  of  fire-brick  material  in  Great 
Britain,  although  scarcely  yet  developed,  but  which,  in  the 
near  future,  is  certain  to  become  a  great  field  for  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  fire-brick  and  fire-clay  wares,  is  the  immense 
pockets  or  depressions  occurring  in  the  mountain  limestone 
of  North  Wales,  Derbyshire,  and  Ireland,  containing  white 
refractory  clays  and  sands,  the  insoluble  remnants  from  the 
local  dissolution  of  the  limestone,  intermixed  with  the  debris 
of  the  overlying  mill-stone  grit.  The  highly  refractory  cha¬ 
racter  of  this  immense  deposit  of  fire-clay  material  makes  it 
pre-eminently  desirable  for  the  manufacture  of  all  the  pro¬ 
ducts  from  fireclays.  Works  are  already  established  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Mold ;  others  are  soon  to  follow.  They 
mix  these  clays  and  sands  evenly,  and  find  them  sufficiently 
adhesive  to  be  moulded,  and  their  contractibility  is  small, 
both  in  the  drying  and  during  burning. 

Fire-bricks  are  made  of  many  different  sizes  and  shapes, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  88,  where  the  usual  measurements  and 
names  of  those  in  common  use  in  this  country  are  given. 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


259 


The  manufacture  of  fire-bricks  may  be  divided  under  the 
following  heads,  viz : — 

Preparation  of  Materials. 

Moulding. 

Drying. 

Setting. 

Burning. 


Fig.  88. 


Soap. 


Cupola— 3G  in.  Circle. 


Cupola  -  48in.  Circle. 


But,  as  all  the  above  stages  of  manufacture  have  already 
been  elaborated  upon,  we  shall  curtail  somewhat  their  fur¬ 
ther  description. 


260 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


The  “  preparation  of  the  materials”  consists,  after  obtain¬ 
ing  and  overhauling  the  fire-clays,  in  pulverizing,  mixing 
the  various  clays  and  additional  substances  in  a  dry  condi¬ 
tion,  and  then  grinding  with  water  in  a  pug-mill,  if  moulded 
in  a  tempered  condition,  and  if  moulded  in  a  dry  state,  then 
simply  in  the  drying,  mixing,  and  pulverizing. 

The  clays  which  are  too  plastic  are  burned  in  the  kiln  or 
oven,  as  has  been  explained  in  the  description  of  the  “Am¬ 
boy  Clay,”  and  the  Mt.  Savage,  Md.,  clays. 

A  large  number  of  machines  are  made  for  stamping, 
grinding,  and  tempering  fire-clays ;  sometimes  the  last  two 
operations  are  conducted  by  the  same  machine. 


Fig.  89. 


In  bigs.  89  and  90  are  shown  exterior  and  interior  views 
of  the  Newell  mill,  which  is  a  contrivance  for  grinding  fire¬ 
clay,  and,  in  fact,  all  varieties  of  clay,  which,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
90,  consists  of  two  rollers ;  these  run  together  at  different 
speeds,  so  that  the  grinding  is  effected  by  the  material  pass- 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC.  261 

ing  between  them,  and  they  receive  the  clay  just  as  it  is  dug 
from  the  pit  and  disintegrate  it  completely;  and  at  the  same 


time  mix  thoroughly  any  sand,  or  other  material  that  may 
be  added  to  it.  The  work  is  so  thoroughly  done,  that  the 


262 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


ground  clay  can  pass  directly,  either  by  chute  or  on  an  end¬ 
less  belt  or  conveyer,  from  the  mill  to  the  pugging  cylinder, 
if  for  fire-bricks,  or  to  the  brick  or  tile  machine,  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  grinding  is  done  very  rapidly,  and  much 
better,  than  under  the  old  methods,  and  with  less  power. 

The  grinding  surfaces  are  steel  castings,  which  are  easily 
renewed  when  worn,  and,  as  seen  in  Fig.  90,  the  cutters  are 
fitted  to  a  pulley  or  drum  which  is  secured  on  the  mill  shaft, 
and  when  the  proper  number  of  cutters  are  placed  on  the 
drums  they  are  firmly  retained  by  two  flanges  with  four 
bolts  in  each,  as  shown. 

These  mills  are  made  in  four  sizes,  which  have  capacities 
ranging  from  40  to  250  tons  of  clay  per  day,  and  the  prices 
on  board  at  New  York  City  are  $300  for  the  small  mill, 
increasing  slightly  in  proportion  to  the  other  sizes. 

I  have  seen  these  mills  in  operation  performing  highly 
satisfactory  work  in  different  fire-clay  works,  as  well  as  in 
the  terra-cotta  works  at  Perth  Amboy,  and  the  extensive 
ornamental  brick-works  of  the  Peerless  Brick  Company  in 
Philadelphia. 

Fig.  91  shows  the  Carnell  stamping  mill  for  fire-clays, 
the  price  of  which  is  $300  on  board  at  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

The  Holland  mill  shown  in  Fig.  92,  for  the  reduction  of 
hard  clays,  can  be  made  stationary  or  portable,  as  is  shown. 

The  object  is  to  provide  a  simple  machine  that  can  be  con¬ 
structed  at  a  comparatively  small  cost,  not  liable  to  get  out  of 
order,  and  that  will  with  rapidity  reduce  the  particles  of  clay. 

Heretofore  this  class  of  machines  for  grinding  fire-clay  has 
consisted  of  a  revolving  pan  or  table  for  receiving  the  mate- 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


263 


264  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

rial  to  be  ground,  which  was  reduced  to  fine  particles  by 
crushing-rollers  revolving  around  a  stationary  and  horizontal 
shaft.  Although  the  material  was  ground  to  the  necessary 
fineness,  there  were  no  means  of  separating  the  finer  parti¬ 
cles  from  the  coarser  while  the  process  of  grinding  was  going 
on,  the  pan  having  a  solid  or  closed  bottom. 

Another  form  of  machine  is  in  use  in  which  the  pan  or 
table,  although  provided  with  a  perforated  bottom,  is  sta¬ 
tionary,  while  a  shaft  carrying  crushing-rollers  horizontally 
revolves  around  the  pan  or  table,  the  rollers  at  the  same 
time  revolving  upon  their  own  axis.  This  pan  or  table, 
being  stationary,  will  not  act  as  a  sifter  for  the  clay,  the 
passage  of  the  finer  particles  through  the  perforations  de¬ 
pending  entirely  upon  the  action  of  the  shaft  and  rollers, 
which  is  not  sufficient ;  the  result  being  the  occasional  clog¬ 
ging  of  the  perforations,  and  thus  rendering  the  operation 
of  the  machine  to  a  certain  extent  impracticable. 

Holland’s  invention  removes  these  objections,  by  pro¬ 
viding  the  pan  with  a  perforated  bottom  and  connecting 
it  with  suitable  mechanism,  whereby  it  is  given  a  horizontal 
rotary  motion  to  sift  the  particles  as  they  are  reduced  to  the 
required  fineness  through  the  perforated  bottom,  and,  as 
previously  stated,  rendering  the  machine  practicable  and 
effective,  and  at  the  same  time  not  expensive. 

In  Fig.  92,  which  shows  a  perspective  view’  of  the  ma¬ 
chine,  A  represents  the  frame,  of  any  suitable  construction, 
to  which  is  connected  the  vertical  shaft  a,  the  upper  end 
thereof  having  its  bearings  in  the  cross-beam  of  the  frame, 
and  the  lower  end  resting  in  a  step  which  is  preferably 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC.  265 

made  adjustable  vertically  by  set-screws  c,  so  as  to  accom¬ 
modate  it  to  the  wearing  of  the  end  of  the  shaft  b.  '  This 
shaft  has  connected  to  it  a  pan  B,  with  perforated  bottom 

the  pan,  if  desired,  being  secured  to  the  shaft  by  a  set¬ 
screw,  and  collar  formed  around  the  central  opening  through 
which  the  shaft  passes. 

The  shaft  e  is  formed  with  a  yoke  /,  through  which  passes 
the  shaft  a,  thus  assisting  in  supporting  the  shaft  in  a  ver¬ 
tical  or  upright  position. 

To  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  a  is  keyed  a  bevel-gear 
wheel  g ,  for  engaging  with  a  similar  wheel  h ,  upon  the  end 
of  a  horizontal  driving-shaft  i,  receiving  its  motion  from 
suitable  gearing  of  an  engine  or  other  power. 

The  pan  B  being  tilled  with  the  desired  quantity  of  clay, 
and  the  shaft  caused  to  rotate  by  the  gearing  g  h ,  as  the  pan 
turns  with  the  shaft  it  causes  the  rollers  G  to  revolve  in 
opposite  directions  by  the  frictional  contact  with  the  clay, 
which  is  properly  crushed,  and  which  clay,  when  reduced  to 
the  required  fineness,  falls  through  the  perforations  in  the 
bottom  cl. 

If  desired,  the  clay  may  be  a  second  time  subjected  to  the 
grinding  process,  or  as  often  as  found  necessary,  and  may 
be  dumped  into  the  pan  by  a  suitable  elevator  or  any  other 
means  found  preferable. 

The  rollers  G  may  be  of  any  desirable  width  and  size.  It 
is  preferred,  however,  that  their  periphery  be  as  broad  as 
possible,  so  as  to  have  as  great  an  area  of  surface  from  the 
centre  to  the  periphery  or  rim  of  the  pan  as  possible  to  facil¬ 
itate  the  process  of  grinding. 

This  machine  would  be  especially  useful  in  preparing 


266 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


the  fine  material  necessary  in  making  substitutes  for  Dinas 
bricks',  which  method  is  fully  described  in  this  chapter. 

The  clay  mill  shown  in  Figs.  93  to  97  is  a  good  contriv¬ 
ance  for  both  the  mixing  and  reduction  of  fire  and  other 
clays,  and  will  work  them  into  either  a  fine,  semi-fine,  or 
coarse  condition. 


Figure  93  is  a  top  or  plan  view  of  the  machine.  Fig.  94 
is  a  side  elevation.  Fig.  95  is  a  sectional  view  on  the  line 
x  x  of  Fig.  94.  Fig.  96  is  a  top  view  of  one  of  the  crush¬ 
ing-rollers,  with  a  portion  broken  away  to  show  the  cutters 
located  therein.  Fig.  97  is  a  side  view  of  Fig.  96,  showing 
the  operating  mechanism. 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


267 


Referring  to  the  drawings,  A  designates  the  reducing- 
rollers  or  cylinders,  mounted  in  suitable  frames  or  supports, 
B  B.  The  reducing-rollers  A  A  are  mounted  so  as  to  re¬ 
volve  in  opposite  directions,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows.  The 
invention  consists  in  subjecting  clay,  clay  shale,  etc.,  to  the 
disintegrating  and  reducing  action  of  rollers  having  a  varia¬ 


ble  peripheral  outline,  so  that  the  clay  to  be  operated  upon 
will  be  subjected  to  rapid  peripheral  action  of  one  coming 
in  contact  with  the  less  rapid  peripheral  action  of  the  axis  of 
the  adjacent  roller.  It  also  consists  in  providing  the  crush¬ 
ing-cylinders  with  peripheral  slotted  perforations,  through 
which  the  clay  is  forced  by  the  pressure  and  abrading  action 


268  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

of  the  rollers  into  the  interior  of  the  cylinders  and  subjected 
to  the  action  of  cutters  or  beaters;  also  of  knives  or  beaters 
located  within  the  disintegrating-rollers,  whereby  the  clay 
which  is  forced  through  the  peripheral  openings  of  the 
rollers  is  still  further  reduced. 

It  is  well  known  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  reduce 
or  disintegrate  clays  or  the  harder  clay  shales,  by  impinge¬ 
ment  alone.  Pressure  exerted  in  two  directions,  as  in  the 
case  of  two  impinging  rollers  rotated  at  the  same  speed,  only 
flattens  or  flakes  the  clays  without  disintegrating  them. 
Even  the  hardest  rock  or  quartz  resists,  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  disintegration  by  such  means,  while  by  the  action  of 
this  and  the  following  machine  the  clay  or  other  material  is 
subjected  to  a  rubbing  action  between  the  impinging  sur¬ 
faces,  while  a  part  thereof  is  forced  into  the  slotted  openings, 
to  be  acted  upon  by  the  rapid-rotating  knives  or  beaters, 
and  is  effectually  reduced  to  the  required  condition. 

The  periphery  of  a  roller  travels  faster  or  has  a  greater 
velocity  than  the  axis.  Consequently,  when  the  clay  is 
caught  between  the  rollers,  it  is  subjected  to  the  action  of 
the  periphery  of  the  roller  acting  against  the  centre  of  the 
adjacent  one.  The  effect  will  be  a  rubbing  or  abrading 
action,  which  will  thoroughly  disintegrate  the  clay,  and  not 
crush  or  compress  it  only,  which  is  the  action  of  ordinary 
reducing-rollers.  The  rollers  A  are  provided  with  a  series 
of  slots  or  perforations,  a,  in  their  peripheries,  which  extend 
through  the  same  and  open  into  the  interior  of  the  cylinders, 
and  through  which  the  clay  is  forced  to  be  operated  upon 
by  revolving  knives  or  beaters  located  within  the  rollers. 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


269 


C  C  are  the  cutters,  arranged  spirally  on  and  around  a 
common  centre  or  hub,  which  is  mounted  in  bearings  in  the 
ends  of  the  cylinders  A,  and  are  provided  with  pinion- 
wheels  b  b,  which  mesh  with  a  larger  pinion-wheel,  C1,  se¬ 
cured  to  the  central  shaft  or  axis  of  the  rollers  or  cylinders 
A,  so  that  by  the  revolution  of  the  cylinders  A  the  knives 
C  will  be  rotated  with  greater  velocity,  and  the  clay  which 
has  been  forced  into  the  rollers  through  the  slots  a  will  be 
cut  or  sliced  into  minute  particles,  and  owing  to  the  spiral 
position  of  the  knives,  the  prepared  clay  is  thrown  to  one 
end  of  the  cylinders  and  out  through  the  openings  cl , 
arranged  for  that  purpose. 

The  cylinders  A  A  are  provided  with  pinion-wheels  D  D, 
which  mesh  with  each  other  and  with  a  pinion-wheel  E ,  on 
the  main  driving-shaft  F \  said  driving-shaft  being  mounted 
in  suitable  bearings,  and  provided  with  a  pulley-wheel  G , 
or  other  means  for  imparting  power  to  the  machine. 

H  is  the  hopper  through  which  the  material  to  be  disinte¬ 
grated  is  fed  to  the  rollers,  which  may  be  made  adjustable 
by  any  of  the  well-known  means,  so  as  to  reduce  the  ma¬ 
terial  to  any  desired  degree  of  fineness. 

Figs.  98  to  100  show  a  modification  of  the  clay  mill  above 
described,  and  it  is  by  the  same  inventor. 

Fig.  98  is  a  side  elevation.  Fig.  99  is  a  top  view.  Fig. 
100  is  a  detached  view  of  the  crushing  or  reducing-rollers. 

Referring  to  the  drawings  A  A  designate  the  reducing- 
rollers,  mounted  in  a  suitable  framework  B.  The  reducing- 
rollers  A  A  are  made  elliptical  in  peripheral  outline  when 


270 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


mounted  to  rotate  in  opposite  directions,  as  indicated  by  the 
arrows  in  Fig.  100,  such  elliptical  form  compensating  for 
the  convergence  incident  to  the  changing  or  alternating  po¬ 


sitions  of  the  rollers  when  rotated  in  this  direction,  and  are 
hung  in  proper  bearings  at  a  point  eccentric  to  their  axes, 
and  so  timed  that  when  they  rotate  at  the  same  velocity  the 
faces  or  peripheries  of  each  of  the  rollers  will  constantly 
touch  or  impinge  against  each  other  during  their  respective 
rotations,  so  that  a  rapidly-changing  peripheral  speed  is  given 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


271 


the  rollers  at  their  points  of  contact,  and  the  material  to  be 
acted  upon  is  subjected  to  a  rubbing,  abrading,  and  crushing 
action,  which  reduces  or  pulverizes  the  same.  The  rollers 
should  be  made  elliptical  and  rotate  in  opposite  directions, 
as  shown;  but  they  may  be  perfectly  round  and  hung  eccen¬ 
trically  to  their  axes  and  rotated  in  the  same  direction,  or 
the  peripheral  outline  changed  to  produce  the  desired  result 
and  the  rollers  hung  on  their  axes.  By  the  action  of  this 
machine  the  clay  or  other  material  is  subjected  to  a  rub¬ 
bing  action  between  the  impinging  surfaces  of  the  rollers, 
which  disintegrates  and  reduces  the  material  to  a  tine,  or 
any  desired  condition. 

The  rollers  A  A  are  provided  with  pinion  or  gear-wheels 
C  (7,  of  the  same  size,  so  that  they  will  be  driven  with  a 
regular  and  uniform  velocity.  One  of  the  rollers  A  is  also 
provided  with  a  pinion  or  gear-wheel  Z>,  which  meshes  with, 
and  is  driven  by  a  pinion-wheel  E,  on  the  main  driving- 
shaft  F ,  driven  by  a  belt  passing  over  the  pulley  G,  and  con¬ 
necting  with  any  suitable  source  of  power.  One  of  the 
rollers  A  is  also  mounted  in  movable  bearings  b ,  which  are 
operated  by  set-screws,  so  as  to  regulate  the  distance  be¬ 
tween  them  to  suit  the  material  to  be  operated  upon  and 
regulate  the  degree  of  pulverization  to  which  the  substance 
is  to  be  brought. 

The  Hoxsie  and  Pifer  machine  shown  in  Figs.  101  to  105 
is  shown  rigged  for  disintegrating  brick-clays;  but  it  can 
easily  be  converted  into  a  valuable  mill  for  either  mixing 
or  reducing  terra-cotta  and  fire-clays. 

Fig.  101  is  a  vertical  sectional  view.  Fig.  102  is  a  side 


272 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


view.  Fig.  103  is  an  end  view.  Fig.  104  is  an  end  view, 
showing  the  slide-boxes  for  adjusting  the  crushing-rollers ; 
and  Fig.  105  is  a  perspective  view. 

A  represents  the  frame  of  the  machine,  which  is  provided 
at  {he  ends  with  bearings  for  two  sets  of  crushing-rollers  B 


Fig.  101  Fig.  102 


B ,  C  C ',  the  shafts  of  which  are  journalled  in  sliding  boxes 
D ,  latterly  adjustable  upon  the  ends  of  the  frame  by  set¬ 
screws  J57,  in  order  that  the  distance  between  the  rollers  of 
each  set  may  be  increased  or  diminished  at  will,  thus  en¬ 
abling  the  machine  to  grind  the  clay  to  any  required  degree 
of  fineness.  The  upper  rollers  B  B  are,  in  practice,  ad¬ 
justed  farther  apart  than  the  lower  ones,  and  scrapers  F  are 
located  under  each  roller  to  remove  any  adhering  clay. 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


273 


The  upper  part  of  the  frame  is  provided  with  bearings  for 
two  square  shafts  G  G ,  provided  with  spikes  H,  adjusted,  as 
shown,  so  as  to  pass  between  each  other  when  the  shafts, 
which  we  term  the  “  picker-shafts,”  revolve.  A  suitably 
constructed  hopper  /,  to  receive  the  clay  fed  into  the  ma¬ 
chine,  is  located  on  top  of  the  frame. 

The  shafts  B 1  Bx  of  the  upper  crushing-rollers  are  pro¬ 
vided  with  gear-wheels  J  J,  engaging  loose  or  lazy-pinions 
K  K,  arranged  upon  the  end  of  the  frame,  and  serving  to 
transmit  motion  between  the  shafts  of  the  upper  and  those 
(71,  of  the  lower  rollers  by  means  of  pinions  Z)1,  arranged 
upon  the  latter.  The  pinions  Dl  being  smaller  than  the 
gear-wheels  J ,  it  follows  that  the  lower  set  of  crushing- 
rollers  is  rotated  at  greater  speed  than  the  upper  ones,  this 
being  necessary  in  order  to  compensate  for  the  greater  dis¬ 
tance  between  the  latter. 

Motion  is  imparted  to  the  machine  from  the  main  drive- 
shaft  by  means  of  a  clutch  X,  engaging  the  shaft  of  one  of 
the  lazy-pinions  K  By  disconnecting  the  clutch  the  ma¬ 
chine  may  at  any  time  be  stopped. 

The  picker-shafts  G  G  are  geared  together  by  pinions 
M  M  at  one  of  their  ends.  At  the  other  end,  one  of  the 
shafts  is  provided  with  a  pinion  A,  clamped  upon  it  by  a 
pair  of  collars  0  0,  which  are  tightened  by  a  binding-nut 
P.  Motion  is  transmitted  to  the  picker  shaft  through  the 
pinion  N  by  a  loose  pinion  Q ,  engaging  the  gear-wheel  of 
one  of  the  upper  crushing-rollers. 

In  operation  the  clay  to  be  ground  is  fed  into  the  hopper, 

when  the  revolving  pickers  serve  to  crush  the  larger  lumps 
18 


274 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


of  clay  and  any  stones  or  lime,  etc.,  which  may  be  found 
therein.  It  then  passes  down  through  the  frame  between 
the  two  sets  of  rollers,  the  lower  ones  of  which  crush  it  to 
the  requisite  fineness. 

If  any  stones  should  be  fed  into  the  machine  too  large  or 
too  hard  to  be  broken  by  the  pickers,  the  spikes  of  the  lat¬ 
ter,  when  striking  against  such  stone,  will  catch  it  and  hold 
it  between  them.  The  driving-power  will  then,  through  the 
described  arrangement  of  gear-wheels  and  pinions,  loosen 
the  pinion  N  between  the  clamping-collars  0  0  upon  the 
picker-shaft,  thus  throwing  the  latter  out  of  gear  without 
danger  of  breaking  any  part  of  the  machine. 

The  machine  is  at  all  times  under  perfect  control,  the 
clutch  L  allowing  it  to  be  thrown  out  of  or  into  gear  at  any 
time,  as  has  been  stated. 

After  the  fire-clay  has  been  properly  reduced  or  disinte¬ 
grated  and  mixed,  it  is  next  tempered  in  a  suitable  pug- 
mill,  which  may  be  horizontal  and  have  the  rollers  placed 
above  it,  or  it  can  be  of  upright  construction,  as  shown 
in  Chapter  IV.,  Sec.  III.,  Figs.  3  to  5.  The  cylinder  can 
be  made  of  iron  in  one  or  more  parts,  and  secured  to  a 
brick  foundation  if  it  is  desired  to  place  the  bottom  on  a 
level  with  the  ground,  and  the  openings  for  the  issuing  of 
clay  can  be  made  so  as  to  slip  around  the  cylinder,  and  by 
opening  them  widely,  cause  the  clay  to  be  coarsely  ground, 
and  by  closing  them  compel  it  to  be  finely  ground. 

Dies  can  be  placed  at  the  mouths  of  these  mills  and  large 
or  small  drain-pipes  formed,  which  is  convenient,  especially 
in  small  or  country  yards. 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


275 


If  the  pug-mill  is  arranged  horizontally,  the  clay  may  be 
made  to  issue  either  from  the  end  or  the  side  of  the  cylinder, 
as  may  be  desired. 

The  moulding  may  be  done  either  by  hand,  in  a  dry  or 
tempered  state,  or  by  machinery ;  but  great  care  is  observed 
not  to  expose  the  green  bricks  to  the  risk  of  loss  by  the 
weather.  The  operation  of  drying  is  also  conducted  slowly 
and  carefully  under  shelter  and  out  of  all  drafts,  which  injure 
the  bricks  by  causing  the  exterior  to  dry  too  rapidly,  thereby 
producing  cracks  on  their  surfaces,  which  lower  the  grade 
and  value  of  the  stock. 

The  machine  shown  on  page  201  seems  to  be  well  con¬ 
structed  for  moulding  ordinary  fire-bricks,  or  when  strength 
is  requisite,  because  the  materials  of  which  these  bricks 
are  usually  composed  vary  greatly  in  size  from  an  impalpable 
plastic  mass  to  lumps  of  cement,  biscuit,  or  silex,  three-eighths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter.  During  the  process  of  tempering 
and  moulding  by  this  machine  this  conglomerate  mass  is  kept 
constantly  in  motion  while  under  pressure;  consequently, 
the  smaller  particles  arrange  themselves  in  the  interstices 
between  the  larger  ones,  and  the  finer  particles  between 
them  again,  and  so  on,  until  every  crevice  is  filled  and  the 
air  excluded ;  the  result  of  which  is  to  make  a  dense  and 
homogeneous  brick — a  result  which  cannot  usually  be  ob¬ 
tained  by  pressure  without  this  motion  of  the  particles. 

Gerhard’s  machine,  sold  by  Fairbanks  &  Co.,  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  is  made  especially  heavy  for  simultaneously  tempering 
and  moulding  fire-bricks.  It  will  make  15,000  bricks  per 
day,  of  ten  hours,  and  is  fully  guaranteed.  The  price  of  the 


276 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


machine  is  $750.  This  machine  will  make  20,000  bricks 
per  day  of  ten  hours. 

Fans  should  not  be  used  for  directly  drying  any  kind  of 
clay  products,  but  they  may  be  employed  effectively  in  all 
classes  of  driers  to  gradually  hut  constantly  exhaust  the  air 
from  the  top,  thereby  at  all  times  stimulating  an  active 
circulation  among  the  wares. 


Fig.  106. 


When  the  green  fire-bricks  made  from  tempered  clay  are 
sufficiently  hardened  to  stand  the  necessary  handlings,  they 
are  pressed  edgewise  in  a  hand-press  in  which  the  mould-box 
is  arranged,  as  shown  in  Fig.  106,  which  is  for  nine  inch  fire¬ 
bricks,  and  the  price  on  board  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  is  $125. 

The  press  shown  in  Fig.  83,  page  225,  can  also  be  used 
for  pressing  edgewise,  and  the  manufacturers  of  the  machines 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


277 


shown  in  Figs.  84  and  86  also  make  presses  suitable  for 
this  work. 

The  care  to  be  observed  in  drying  materials  for  retorts 
and  crucibles  has  already  been  enlarged  upon. 

The  setting  of  fire-clay  products  is  very  carefully  done, 
all  stock  is  gently  handled,  and  when  it  is  in  the  shape 
of  fire-bricks  they  are  arranged  or  placed  in  the  kiln 
in  a  manner  much  similar  to  that  employed  for  common 
bricks  in  the  same  locality  in  which  they  are  made. 

The  placing  of  wares  of  various  shapes  in  a  kiln  prepara¬ 
tory  to  burning  is  a  matter  for  the  exercise  of  judgment, 
and  requires  experience  as  well  as  discretion.  One  piece 
must  be  made  to  securely  prop  another  without  having  too 
much  of  their  surfaces  in  continued  contact.  Heavy  pieces 
form  the  base  or  supports,  and  the  lighter  wares  are  vari¬ 
ously  distributed,  care  being  observed  to  allow  the  steam  or 
“water  smoke”  every  opportunity  for  freely  escaping,  and 
the  heat  to  have  regular  distribution  throughout  the  entire 
pile  of  wares. 

If  large  openings  are  left  one  over  the  other,  “  flues”  will 
form,  and  the  heat  will,  during  the  whole  time  of  burning, 
quickly  rush  and  circulate  among  these  “  flues,”  thereby 
causing  all  the  stock  exposed  in  them  to  be  burned  une¬ 
qually,  extremely  hard  on  one  face  and  not  so  much  on 
another. 

The  loss  from  cracked  and  twisted  wares  caused  from 
careless  setting  or  placing  in  the  kilns  is  often  very  large, 
being  much  greater  in  fact  than  it  would  be  by  using  extra 
precaution  to  avoid  “flues”  in  the  setting. 

But  the  “  flues”  are  sometimes,  but  not  so  often,  formed 


2T8 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


from  the  unequal  shrinking  of  the  stock  in  the  kiln,  which 
is  an  additional  reason  for  having  a  uniform  mixture  of  the 
materials. 

The  circular,  domed  “  over-draft”  kilns  are  largely  used 
for  burning  fire-bricks  and  terra-cotta  products,  and  the 
Hoffman  annular  kiln  is  also  employed  extensively  in  all 
parts  of  the  world. 

Both  of  these  kilns  are  so  commonly  known,  that  there  is 
no  necessity  for  an  explanation  of  their  construction  in  this 
volume. 

The  over-draft  kiln  shown  on  page  152  can  be  used  to 
advantage  in  the  burning  of  fire-clay  wares,  as  well  as  for 
common  bricks. 

Kilns  constructed  on  regenerative  principles  are  now 
coming  largely  into  use  for  the  burning  of  fire-clay  products 
of  all  descriptions,  as  it  can  be  performed  in  them  cheaply, 
thoroughly,  and  more  effectively  than  in  any  other  class  of 
kilns.  They  are  to  the  uninitiated  complicated ;  but  -when 
fully  understood  are  more  simple  in  their  workings  than  the 
old  styles  of  kilns. 

Mr.  James  Dunnachie,  of  the  Glenboig  Star  Fire-clay 
Works,  Lanark,  Scotland,  has  recently  perfected  an  im¬ 
proved  regenerative  kiln  for  burning  fire-bricks,  which  has 
for  its  object  more  thoroughly  to  mix  the  air  and  gas  burned 
in  such  kilns,  and  to  effect  a  better  diffusion  of  the  heat  ob¬ 
tained  from  their  combustion,  as  well  as  more  thoroughly  to 
regulate  and  equalize  the  same.  These  objects  are  effected 
by  constructing  in  the  walls  of  adjacent  kilns  duplex  hollow 
spaces  or  flues,  the  alternating  portions  of  the  opposite  sides 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


279 


of  which  have  slits  or  perforations  formed  therein,  so  as  to 
enable  the  heated  products  of  combustion  to  be  passed  or 
discharged  from  the  lowest  part  of  one  kiln  into  the  lowest 
part  of  the  next  kiln — that  is  to  say,  the  kiln  which  is  being 
heated  preparatory  to  being  fired.  These  flue-spaces  are 
provided  with  vertical  or  horizontal  dampers,  so  as  to  shut 
off  the  communication  between  the  kilns,  the  slits  or  perfo¬ 
rations  in  the  flue-spaces  effecting  the  improved  diffusion. 
In  place  of  forming  such  flues  in  the  walls  of  adjacent 
kilns,  flues  may  be  formed  in  the  brick-work  outside  the  wall, 
in  which  case  the  air  descends  some  distance  below  the 
floor  of  the  kiln,  where  it  passes  through  ports,  regulated 
by  dampers,  into  a  still  lower  flue,  from  which  it  escapes 
through  slits  or  perforations  formed  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
walls  into  the  burner  or  chamber,  or  opening,  wherein  it 
mixes  with  the  gas.  For  the  purpose  of  admitting  either 
hot  air  into  the  upper  part  of  the  kilns  from  an  adjacent 
kiln,  or  for  the  purpose  of  admitting  cold  air  to  the  upper 
part  of  a  kiln  being  fired,  a  similar  flue — that  is  to  say, 
either  duplex  or  single — is  provided  with  dampers  and  with 
slits  or  perforations  in  its  opposite  sides  in  the  walls  at  or 
near  to  the  upper  part  of  the  kilns.  Either  hot  or  cold  air 
is  admitted  through  these  upper  flues  and  slits  or  perfora¬ 
tions,  when  the  air  admitted  at  the  lower  part  of  the  kilns 
with  the  gas  may  be  either  deficient  in  quantity  to  produce 
complete  combustion,  or  when  the  temperature  of  a  kiln  at 
its  upper  part  may  be  either  too  high  or  too  low.  In  place 
of  making  the  flues  duplex,  with  slits  or  perforations,  as 
before  described,  they  may  be  made  single,  with  one  side — 


280 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


namely,  that  through  which  the  discharge  takes  place — con¬ 
structed  with  one,  two,  or  more  larger  openings  in  lieu  of 
slits  or  perforations  above  or  at  a  level  with  the  bottom  of 
the  kiln,  and  with  slits  or  perforations  at  the  opposite  side. 

The  improvements  before  described  may  also  be  applied 
to  calcining-kilns  and  other  analogous  apparatus. 

Figs.  107  to  119  represent  the  invention  as  applied  to  kilns 
arranged  in  two  opposite  rows  or  series  of  five  (less  or  more) 
each,  the  end  kiln  of  each  series  being  connected  to  the  cor¬ 
responding  end  kilns  of  the  other  series  by  means  of  flues ; 
but  it  may  be  applied  to  kilns  otherwise  arranged. 


FIG.  107 


Fig.  107  is  a  general  plan  of  the  series  of  kilns.  Fig.  108 
is  an  end  elevation  of  the  same.  Fig.  109  is  a  front  eleva¬ 
tion  of  one  of  the  series  or  rows.  Fig.  110  is  a  longitudinal 
vertical  section  of  the  same.  Fig.  Ill  is  a  plan  of  the  same, 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


281 


partly  in  section,  on  the  line  1  2,  Fig.  110.  The  following 
figures  are  drawn  to  a  larger  scale,  the  better  to  exhibit  the 
flues  and  passages:  Fig.  112  is  a  longitudinal  vertical  sec¬ 
tion  of  a  kiln  of  the  series  with  portions  of  the  adjacent 


FIG.  108 


^  n  ^ 

n  i 

n 

— ~  i 

l 

in 

in 

iN 

;n 

;i 

nl 

V 

FIG.  109 


C-2. 


kilns  on  either  side.  Fig.  113  shows  one-half  of  a  horizon¬ 
tal  section  of  the  same,  taken  on  the  lines  3  4,  Fig.  112. 
Fig.  114  is  a  vertical  transverse  section  on  the  line  5  6,  Fig. 
112  showing  the  side  wall  of  the  kiln,  indicated  by  the 
arrow  7.  Fig.  115  is  a  section  on  the  line  5  8,  Fig.  112,  hut 
showing  the  other  side  wall  of  the  kiln,  indicated  by  the 


282 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA 


arrow  9.  Figs.  116,  117,  118,  and  119  are  views  of  a  modi¬ 
fication,  hereafter  more  particularly  referred  to. 

The  gas  to  be  employed  for  the  burning  process  is  ob¬ 
tained  from  any  convenient  source.  For  example,  it  is  pro- 


! 


I 


FIG.115 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


283 


duced  in  gas-producers,  indicated  at  A,  Fig.  107,  and  is  led 
therefrom  by  the  main  passage  a,  wherefrom  lead  branch 
passages  a 1  for  the  gas  to  each  kiln,  a  valve  a 2  being  upon 
each  such  passage  to  regulate  the  supply  of  gas  to  each  kiln. 
The  gas  passes  into  the  kilns  by  openings  a 3  and  <x4.  In  the 
division- walls  which  separate  the  kilns  are  duplex  hollow 
spaces  or  flues  (marked  respectively  B  and  C )  communicat¬ 
ing  the  one  with  the  other  by  openings  b ,  which  openings 
are  regulated  or  closed  by  dampers  c.  In  the  side  of  the 
flue  C  are  passages  c2,  opening  from  the  flue  just  above  the 
outlets  for  gas  u4  in  the  one  kiln,  the  flue  B  being  in  com¬ 
munication  by  the  slots  b 2,  passage  or  flue  b 3,  and  slots  Z>4 
with  the  lower  part  of  the  adjacent  flue.  A  duplex  passage 
consisting  of  flues  D  and  E  is  also  formed  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  walls  of  the  kilns,  the  one  passage  D  communicating 
by  means  of  the  openings  d  with  the  one  kiln,  and  the  other 
passage  E  communicating  by  means  of  the  openings  e  with 
the  adjacent  kiln.  The  flues  D  and  E  communicate  with 
each  other  by  openings  cZ2,  which  can  be  regulated  by 
dampers  e2.  Openings  f  are  made  in  the  roofs  of  the  kilns, 
which  openings  are  covered  by  slabs  or  dampers  / 2. 

In  operation,  when  one  kiln  is  in  fire  the  effluent  gases 
produced  therein  are  passed  into  the  adjacent  kiln  through 
the  openings  b 4,  passage  b 3,  openings  b2,  passage  B,  openings 
b,  and  passage  C  into  the  adjacent  kiln  next  in  the  series 
through  the  openings  c2,  and  will  heat  the  contents  of  the 
kiln.  When  the  first  kiln  has  been  fired  off  the  air  passes 
through  that  kiln  into  the  adjacent  one  through  the  pas¬ 
sages  B  and  f7,  as  before  described,  issuing  thereinto  by  the 


284 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


openings  c2.  Gas  is  then  turned  on  to  this  kiln,  and,  meet¬ 
ing  with  hot  air,  burns  and  bakes  the  bricks.  The  quantity 
of  air  passing  through  the  one  kiln  to  be  heated  on  its  pas¬ 
sage  to  the  adjacent  one  is  regulated  by  the  dampers  c,  and 
the  quantity  of  gas  admitted  to  this  kiln  is  regulated  by  the 
valve  a.  When  this  last-mentioned  kiln  is  burned  off,  the 
supply  of  gas  is  turned  off  therefrom,  and  this  one  becomes 
in  its  turn  the  regenerator  or  heater  of  air  for  the  next  kiln, 
and  so  on  through  the  series,  the  passages  marked  Br  and 
(72  in  Figs.  107  and  108  giving  communication  between  the 
respective  end  kilns  of  each  row  of  kilns.  If  it  is  desired  to 
admit  hot  air  to  the  upper  part  of  any  kiln,  this  may  be 
done  by  opening  the  dampers  /2  at  the  top  of  a  fired-off 
kiln,  and  air  heated  by  the  kiln  thus  be  caused  to  pass  from 
the  kiln  through  the  openings  d,  passage  Z),  openings  dr , 
and  passage  E,  and  into  the  adjacent  kiln  through  the 
openings  e  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
kiln,  or  to  assist  in  the  combustion  of  the  gas.  Where  cold 
air  is  to  be  admitted,  air  passes  through  the  flue  E,  which 
is  open  to  the  atmosphere  at  both  ends.  The  outlet-pas¬ 
sages  from  each  kiln,  and  the  main  flues  to  the  chimney  into 
which  these  passages  open,  are  indicated  in  Fig.  107,  and 
are  there  marked  g. 

Figs.  116,  117,  118,  and  119  represent  views  correspond¬ 
ing  respectively  to  Figs.  112,  113,  114,  and  115  of  a  modifi¬ 
cation  of  the  invention  wherein  the  flues  B  and  C.  for  the 
admission  of  hot  air  to  mix  and  burn  with  the  gas,  are  made 
in  the  brick-work  outside  the  kiln-walls  in  place  of  in  the 
walls  themselves.  Fig.  117  is  a  horizontal  half-section  on 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


285 


the  line  10,  11,  Fig.  116.  Figs.  118  and  119  are  transverse 
vertical  sections  taken  on  the  line  14,  15,  Fig.  116,  showing 
the  opposite  side  walls,  as  indicated  respectively  by  the 
arrows  12  and  13.  The  air  from  the  fired-off  kiln,  and 
heated  thereby,  passes  down  by  the  openings  A4  into  the  flue 
B  through  openings  b  (one  on  each  side),  regulated  by 
dampers  c,  into  the  flue  C ,  and  therefrom  by  the  slotted 
passages  c3  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  kiln-wall  into  the  pas¬ 
sage  a 5,  where  it  mixes  before  passing  into  the  kiln  with  the 
gas  introduced  through  the  gas-passage  a  and  openings  a3. 

The  flues,  either  in  the  lower  part  or  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  kilns,  may  be  made  single  instead  of  duplex,  the  one 
side  communicating  by  a  number  of  openings  with  the  one 
kiln,  and  with  the  other  by  openings  at  the  ends  of  this 
single  flue,  these  openings  being  regulated  and  closed  by 
dampers.  Single  flues  of  this  construction,  marked  H ,  are 
shown  in  the  upper  part  of  the  kiln- walls  in  Figs.  116,  118, 
and  119.  The  openings  by  which  the  flue  communicates 
with  the  one  kiln  are  marked  A,  and  the  openings  at  either 
end  of  the  other  side  of  the  flue,  to  give  communication  to 
the  other  kiln,  are  marked  A2,  their  opening  being  regulated 
by  dampers  A3.  A  similar  arrangement  may  be  applied  at 
the  lower  part  of  the  wall  in  place  of  the  duplex  flues;  but 
the  arrangements  of  duplex  flues  shown  are  preferable. 

To  give  a  perfect  diffusion  of  air,  it  is  preferred  that 
where  a  continuous  series  of  slots  is  employed  for  the  pas¬ 
sage  of  air  into  and  from  the  various  flues,  the  slots  should 
break  bond  or  be  placed  alternately,  so  that  the  slots  in  one 
side  are  opposite  the  slot-divisions  in  the  other. 


286 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


This  invention  may  also  be  applied,  essentially  in  the 
manner  described,  to  calcining-kilns,  coke-ovens,  or  other 
analogous  apparatus. 

Fire-clay  and  terra-cotta  clay  are  sometimes  used  to  form 
columns,  and  often  for  the  manufacture  of  hollow  tiles  for 
fire-proofing  between  iron  floor  and  ceiling  joists.  When 
used  for  these  purposes  the  clay  should  be  fatty  and  plastic, 
with  an  idea  to  securing  the  necessary  strength  for  the  pur¬ 
poses  for  which  the  wares  are  to  be  employed. 

In  the  United  States  Pension  Office  building  now  (1884) 
being  constructed  in  the  city  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  all  the 
columns  on  the  principal  floor  that  support  the  galleries 
running  entirely  around  the  interior  of  the  building,  which 
is  four  hundred  feet  long  by  two  hundred  feet  wide,  are 
made  of  fire-clay,  in  separate  sections,  densely  moulded  and 
thoroughly  burned.  Each  section  of  the  column  is  circular, 
the  thickness  six  inches  and  the  diameters  varving  so  as  to 
taper  from  the  bottom  to  the  top.  In  the  centre  of  each 
block  or  section  there  is  a  small  circular  hole  about  three 
inches  in  diameter,  which  allows  good  action  for  the  heat 
while  the  block  is  in  the  kiln.  The  bottom  section  is  care¬ 
fully  bedded  in  best  Portland  cement,  and  encircling  it  is  a 
light  cast-iron  rim,  forming  the  base  of  the  column;  each 
section  is  then  laid  level  in  Portland  cement,  and  the 
hollow  spaces  in  the  centre  of  each  block  filled  with  a 
fine  concrete  made  with  llosendale  cement,  which  does 
not  expand  in  setting.  The  surface  of  the  column  is  then 
immediately  smoothed  over  with  Portland  cement,  which 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


287 


is  dampened  with  water  once  or  twice  a  day,  for  several  days, 
to  prevent  the  too  rapid  drying  of  this  slow  setting  cement. 

The  best  cement  for  erecting  or  coating  this  kind  of  col¬ 
umn  is  the  one  given  at  the  end  of  Sec.  I.,  Chapter  VI. 
There  is  no  danger  from  saltpetre  if  the  cement  is  prepared 
as  directed  and  with  clean  river  sand. 

When  columns  prepared  in  this  way  receive  proper  poly¬ 
chrome  treatment,  the  effect  in  all  classes  of  buildings  is 
very  pleasant,  and  can  be  made  to  form  an  attractive  part  of 
the  design. 

All  medieval  buildings  were  intended  to  be  colored,  and 
the  color  entered  into  and  formed  part  of  the  original  de¬ 
sign,  which  in  most  cases  has  been  lost  from  the  practice  of 
whitewashing  them  over,  which  so  generally  prevailed  in 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  Whenever  this 
whitewash  is  removed  carefully,  the  original  coloring  ap¬ 
pears  ;  but  unfortunately,  in  getting  off  the  whitewash,  the 
original  thin  coat  of  fine  plaster  which  formed  the  gesso  or 
ground  to  paint  upon,  is  removed  in  company  with  it. 

In  some  instances  the  stone  itself  seems  to  have  been 
painted  upon,  and  the  color  mixed  with  wax  varnish,  which 
is  impervious  to  moisture ;  and  although  these  have  been 
treated  to  repeated  coats  of  the  worse  than  senselessly  ap¬ 
plied  whitewash,  the  coloring  still  reappears,  seemingly  in 
defiance  of  the  ignorance  which  ordered  its  application. 

At  times  the  coloring  was  executed  while  the  plaster  was 
wet,  in  what  is  termed  fresco  painting,  and  thus  became 
part  of  the  plaster  itself,  and  can  be  destroyed  only  by  the 
destruction  of  the  plastering. 


288  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

As  the  style  of  carved  ornaments  changed,  so  did  the 
style  of  coloring  follow  in  company  with  it. 

This  may  seem  an  out-of-the-way  place  to  inject  observa¬ 
tions  on  the  matter  of  artistic  coloring,  but  as  it  is  peculiarly 
applicable  to  the  decoration  of  fire-clay  columns  and  ceilings, 
liberty  has  been  taken  to  sandwich  it  between  these  fire-clay 
productions,  which  are  generally  used  only  in  such  class  of 
constructions  as  receive  an  artistic  finish  of  this  character. 

Hollow  tiles  made  of  fire-clay  are  largely  employed  in  fire¬ 
proof  construction  for  arches  between  floors,  ceilings,  and 
rafters ;  the  pieces  are  so  moulded  as  to  form  a  perfectly  keyed 
arch,  and  so  laid  as  to  break  bonds  or  joints,  when  in  place. 

They  are  much  lighter  than  the  brick  arch  and  the  usual 
mass  of  material  used  to  weight  the  hause  or  haunch. 

In  order  to  give  the  plastering  perfect  hold,  the  ceiling 
face  is  roughly  scratched  before  burning.  With  these  tiles 
a  level  floor  or  ceiling  can  be  obtained  without  furring  or 
lathing;  extra  thickness  of  floors  and  consequent  additional 
height  of  the  building  can  also  be  saved.  When  made  por¬ 
ous  they  absorb  all  dampness,  which  is  carried  off  through 
the  hollow  spaces  in  the  tile. 

Hollow  tiles  can  be  used  both  for  heating  and  for  ventila¬ 
ting  purposes;  flues,  ducts,  chambers,  etc.,  have  been  largely 
constructed  with  them  in  many  of  the  United  States  Govern¬ 
ment  buildings  ;  and  are  now  (1884)  being  largely  employed 
in  the  reconstruction  of  the  United  States  Patent  Office 
building  in  Washington,  D.  C.  The  building  was  partially 
destroyed  by  fire  September  24,  1877,  since  which  time  these 
tiles  have  been  used  for  arches  and  sometimes  for  portions 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


289 


in  the  reconstruction  of  the  destroyed  parts,  and  Congress 
has  since  ordered  the  remaining  portions  not  touched  by  the 
flames  to  be  taken  out  and  made  fire-proof^  which  is  now 
being  done. 

These  tiles  have  great  elasticity  to  resist  sudden  impact, 
and  an  eight-inch  tile  arch  with  a  span  of  five  feet  between 
beams  will  sustain,  without  deflection,  more  than  2000 
pounds  to  the  superficial  foot  of  floor. 

Some  recent  tests  instituted  by  Gen.  M.  C.  Meigs,  now 
superintending  the  construction  of  the  U.  S.  Pension  Office 
building  in  Washington,  as  to  the  resistance  of  terra-cotta 
sheathing  tiles  to  dead  weight  superimposed  upon  their  surT 
faces,  are  of  interest  to  builders  in  all  sections  of  the  country, 
and  particularly  so  to  those  desiring  a  cool,  non-conducting 
material  for  roofing  and  flooring.  The  tiles  used  in  the  Pen¬ 
sion  Office  are  to  be  covered  with  an  external  tunic  of  metal¬ 
roofing,  in  order  to  protect  them.  They  are  of  ordinary  pat¬ 
tern,  with  three  rectangular  holes  running  longitudinally 
through  them  from  end  to  end,  thus  insuring  dryness,  light¬ 
ness,  and  atmospheric  circulation.  The  dead  weight  was  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  middle  of  the  tiles  that  were  tested,  the  edges 
being  so  supported  as  to  leave  a  clear  span  of  22  inches. 
Tiles  of  pure  clay  sustained  a  weight  of  2394  pounds  before 
yielding,  while  those  of  mixed  clay  and  sawdust  gave  way 
under  a  dead  pressure  of  1940  pounds — a  resistance  amply 
sufficient  for  the  practical  purposes  of  flooring  material,  to 
say  nothing  of  roofing  in  either  case.  Indeed,  the  fire-proof 
flooring  of  the  new  Columbia  College  Law  School — one  of 


19 


290 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


the  most  elegant  Gothic  structures  erected  in  New  York 
during  the  last  five  years — is  composed  of  tiles  of  the  kind 
tested  by  Gen.  Meigs,  protected  at  the  surface  by  a  tesse- 
lated  fabric  of  colored  marbles.  The  tiles  are  all  perforated 
longitudinally,  thus  adding  to  the  ventilation  resources  of 
the  building  and  obviating  the  dampness  that  seems  to  be 
unavoidable  in  floors  of  common  brick,  while  at  the  same 
time  securing  a  degree  of  resistance  to  heat  that  can  hardly  j 
be  predicted  of  ordinary  brick  and  cement.  The  use  of  saw¬ 
dust,  one-third  woody  debris  to  two-thirds  of  clay,  it  appears, 
renders  the  tiles  considerably  lighter  and  more  elastic,  with¬ 
out  to  a  sufficient  degree  impairing  their  availability  for 
roofing  or  even  for  flooring,  providing  the  protection  from 
sharp  percussion  is  adequate  to  the  purpose;  and  the  cool¬ 
ness  of  such  roofs  and  floors  in  the  hottest  days  in  summer 
has  also  been  verified  by  experience  in  several  buildings  in 
New  York  City. 

The  tiles  which  were  tested  as  above  stated  were  made  by 
the  Potomac  Terra-Cotta  Company  of  Washington,  D.  C. 

Fig.  120  shows  three  views  of  hollow  tile  fire-proof  floors; 
the  first  is  a  6-inch  form,  between  6-inch  light  I  beams,  span 
4  feet,  concrete  2  inches  thick  on  which  is  a  tile  floor. 

The  second  is  an  8-inch  tile  arch,  between  10|-inch  I 
beams,  span  5  feet,  2x4,  furring  strips  are  shown  bedded  in 
the  concrete  in  case  board  floors  should  be  desired. 

The  third  view  represents  a  12|-inch  arch  laid  between 
15-inch  I  beams,  ready  for  either  marble,  tile,  wood,  or 
cement  floor  finish. 

If  uniformity  in  design  is  essential,  the  hollow  tiles  can 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


291 


be  made  to  form  an  arch  with  concave  soffit,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  121,  the  ceiling  in  which  presents  the  same  appearance 
as  an  ordinary  brick  arch. 

Fig.  120. 

HOLLOW  TILE  FIREPROOF  FLOORS. 


View  of  6  in.  Tile  Arch,  between  6, in.  I  beams. 
Weight,  30  lbs.  per  square  ft. 


View  of  9  in.  Tile  Arch,  between  10  1-2  in.  I  beams. 
Weight  38  lbs.  per  square  ft. 


View  of  12  1-2  in.  Tile  Arch,  between  15  in.  I  beams. 
Weignt,  45  lbs.  per  square  ft. 


Section  through  Hollow  Tile  Floor  Arch 
with  Concave  Soff't. 

This  class  of  construction  possesses  good  fire-proof  quali¬ 
ties,  is  economical  in  space  and  weight,  as  well  as  reasonable 
in  cost,  and  it  can  be  safely  used  in  all  arches  of  moderate 
span,  where  bricks  can  be  employed  alone  for  fire-proof  pur¬ 
poses,  and  in  many  places  where  bricks  cannot  be  so  used, 
without  requiring  large  space  and  much  needless  expense. 


292 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


Hollow  tiles  as  well  as  solid  may  also  be  applied  to  fire¬ 
proofing  iron  and  other  columns,  the  disastrous  collapses  of 


Fio.  122 

unprotected  cast-iron  supports  during  great  fires  being  what 
has  demonstrated  the  great  necessity  for  a  non-conducting 
material  to  protect  them  when  they  are  employed. 


FIRE-CLAYS,  FIRE-BRICKS,  ETC. 


293 


In  Fig.  122  A  and  B  are  perspective  views  of  encased 
iron  columns,  one  a  cylindrical  and  the  other  an  X-shaped 
support. 

The  first  is  covered  with  2|-inch  hollow  tile,  laid  in 
cement  mortar,  and  firmly  tied  around  all  sides  of  the  col¬ 
umn  with  tile  clamps ;  the  air  space  in  the  tile  being  a  great 
help  during  the  heat  of  a  conflagration.  The  X-shaped 
column  is  encased  with  a  solid  tile,  a  sectoral  air  space  being 
secured  between  the  column  and  tile. 

In  this  case  the  tile  does  not  project  so  far  beyond  the 
face  of  the  column,  which  allows  the  proportions  to  be  more 
properly  observed,  and  besides  it  is  cheaper  and  just  as 
effective. 

The  tiles  are  laid  so  as  to  break  the  bond  or  joints,  and 
are  entirely  self-supporting,  no  drilling  or  tapping  of  the 
column  being  required. 

The  cut  also  shows  the  usual  wavs  in  which  the  columns 
are  finished  after  the  covering  is  in  place,  Portland,  Keen’s, 
or  Parian  cement  being  the  ones  usually  employed.  Sec¬ 
tional  plans  of  the  encased  columns  are  shown  at  C  and  D. 
Sectional  views  of  E  and  F  show  variations  in  the  form  of 
fire-proof  casings. 

Note — For  a  portion  of  the  matter  contained  in  this  chapter,  relating 
to  English  fire-clays,  the  author  desires  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness 
to  an  excellent  article  on  the  subject  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  9th 
edition,  vol.  ix.  p.  238. 


294 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

TERRA-COTTA. 

Section  I.  General  Remarks. 

Terra-cotta  is  but  another  name  for  architectural  enrich¬ 
ments  of  brick-work  of  various  designs  and  shapes.  The 
term  is  of  Italian  derivation,  and,  literally  translated,  means 
cooked  or  baked  clay.  This  term  was  more  appropriate  to 
the  ancient  terra-cotta,  which  was  usually  less  burned,  not  so 
homogeneous  and  coarser  in  texture  than  with  us,  but  that 
is  not  a  true  description  of  the  process  as  now  employed  in 
converting  the  artistically  moulded  clay  into  finished  terra¬ 
cotta. 

From  the  definition,  cooked  or  baked  clay,  it  might  be 
supposed  that  terra-cotta  did  not  receive  so  great  a  degree 
of  heat  as  is  applied  to  bricks  during  the  process  of  burning; 
but  this  is  not  true,  as  terra-cotta  requires  a  greater  degree 
and  a  more  regular  distribution  of  heat  during  the  firing 
than  are  either  given  or  generally  required  for  bricks. 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  less  lime  and  alkaline  fluxes 
are  contained  in  terra-cotta  clays  than  in  brick-clays,  and 
the  former  being  stronger  and  more  refractory,  naturally 
require  greater  heat  to  compel  them  to  part  with  the  water 
chemically  combined  with  them. 

Terra-cotta  was  largely  used  for  architectural  decorations 


TERRA-COTTA. 


295 


in  Greece,  Etruria,  Pompeii,  Rome,  and  Mediaeval  Italy,  and 
it  was  in  the  clay  plains  of  North  Italy  that  terra-cotta  was 
first  predominantly  employed  over  other  materials  in  archi¬ 
tectural  construction  and  ornamentation,  and  the  inspira¬ 
tion  of  modern  designs  in  architectural  terra-cotta  is  largely 
drawn  from  these  works,  especially  those  structures  erected 
from  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  until  the  commencement 
of  the  sixteenth  century. 

In  England,  the  friezes,  cornices,  and  other  highly  orna¬ 
mental  work  in  terra-cotta  of  the  Manor  House  at  East  Bar- 
sham  and  the  Parsonage  House  at  Great  Snoring,  both  in 
Norfolk,  erected  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  are  worthy 
of  particular  notice,  and  the  use  of  terra-cotta  for  decorative 
panels  and  bas-reliefs  appears  to  have  been  popular  during 
his  time. 

The  gateway  of  York  Palace,  Whitehall,  designed  by 
Holbein,  was  decorated  with  four  circular  terra-cotta  panels, 
which  are  still  preserved  at  Hatfield  Peveril,  Hants. 

The  gateway  of  the  Rectory  of  Hadleigh  Church,  Suffolk, 
erected  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  very  care¬ 
fully  restored  about  thirty-five  years  ago,  the  terra-cotta  for 
the  purpose  being  creditably  reproduced,  at  the  Lyham 
Kilns,  near  Hadleigh. 

From  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  until  after 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  terra-cotta  was  used  only  in  large  and 
expensive  buildings ;  but  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  the  use  of  terra-cotta  was  by  no  means  uncommon  in 
Great  Britain ;  but  soon  after  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  its 
use  was  discontinued.  Its  modern  employment  is  but  a 


296 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


revived  taste,  and  is  the  result  of  laudable  efforts,  on  the  part 
of  a  few  architects,  to  secure  lasting  and  honest  ornamenta¬ 
tion  in  lieu  of  that  sham  and  dishonest  effect  procured 
through  the  employment  of  stucco  and  galvanized  sheet-iron, 
the  latter  material  not  being  so  common  in  Europe  as  in 
this  country. 

Some  of  the  coats-of-arms  seen  over  many  of  the  shops  in 
London  are  made  of  terra-cotta,  and  in  those  having  been 
properly  vitrified  in  burning  the  form  is  still  good,  and  the 
exposure  to  the  elements,  often  for  more  than  a  century,  has 
in  no  way  affected  the  lines. 

Many  early  productions,  even  of  less  durability  than  those 
now  made,  are  found  in  ruins  of  stone,  in  which  the  latter 
material  has  been  steadily  disintegrating  for  thousands  of 

I 

years;  but  leaving  the  terra-cotta  as  perfect  in  many  cases 
as  if  recently  produced. 

In  faithfully  made  and  vitrified  terra-cotta,  we  have  the 
great  and  only  lasting  triumph  of  man  over  natural  pro¬ 
ductions;  for  timber  will  rot,  stone,  even  granite,  will  dis¬ 
integrate,  iron  will  oxidize,  these  and  all  other  metals  will 
succumb  to  the  action  of  fire,  and  other  destroying  influences 
of  the  elements ;  but  properly  made  and  thoroughly  burned 
terra-cotta  will  pass  through  the  centuries,  and  be  the  last 
to  yield  to  those  influences  to  which  all  natural  productions 
must  give  way,  the  material  being  not  only  absolutely  fire¬ 
proof,  but  also  in  all  architectural  employments  practically 
time-proof  and  indestructible. 

Bank-notes,  notes  of  hand,  deeds  of  property,  private 
transactions,  public  records,  and  many  things  of  this  charac- 


TERRA-COTTA. 


297 


ter  have  been  and  can  still  be  found  in  a  good  state  of  pres¬ 
ervation  among  the  ruins  of  the  great  city,  ancient  Babylon ; 
but  they  are  not  in  the  shape  of  perishable  paper  or  parch¬ 
ment,  but  in  the  indestructible  terra-cotta. 

The  best  history  of  Chaldea  comes  to  us  in  this  shape, 
there  is  something  in  these  tablets  of  clay  that  we  have 
no  desire  to  discredit;  they  seem  to  appeal  to  our  practical 
understanding,  and  the  tendency  to  doubt  them  is  not  so 
strong  as  with  some  modern  written  histories. 

I  cannot  pay  a  more  eloquent  tribute  to  terra-cotta  than 
by  making  a  free  translation  from  a  few  sentences  of  the 
French  of  Jacquemart : — 

“  In  the  grandeur  of  the  expiring  Roman  Empire,  when 
the  people  were  wrapped  in  tine  silk  and  purple,  and  when 
to  their  sandals  they  were  covered  with  rich  embroidery, 
pearls,  and  other  precious  stones,  even  when  vessels  of  gold, 
jasper,  sardonyx,  and  onyx  had  superseded  the  earthen  pot¬ 
tery  for  ornaments  of  the  temples  and  with  the  powerful, 
and  there  was  symmetry  in  every  line  of  the  commonest 
form  employed  in  architecture,  when  golden  -  grounded 
mosaics  illumined  the  domes,  and  the  rich  columns  were 
formed  of  many  colored  spirals,  and  when  magnificent  veils 
of  most  costly  silk  were  spread  before  the  altar,  then  the 
humble  terra-cotta  introduced  itself  among  all  this  splendor. 

“The  bold  cupolas,  which  the  eye  hesitates  to  measure 
under  their  dazzling  images,  which,  if  constructed  of  stone, 
would  have  sunk  of  their  own  weight;  these  cupolas  owe 
their  existence  still,  to  excite  our  admiration,  to  the  judicious 
employment  of  terra-cotta  in  hollow  form.  The  ceramic  art 


298 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


was  drawn  upon  in  a  way  not  usually  employed,  and  the 
ingenious  masonry  of  these  masterpieces  of  architecture  was 
formed  by  kinds  of  truncated  bottles,  strung  one  into  the 
other,  and  disposed  in  parallel  curves. 

“  Other  branches  of  pottery,  excepting  brick-making,  had 
so  entirely  disappeared  as  to  leave  us  no  mark  of  their  hav¬ 
ing  been  employed  at  all ;  but  in  the  expiring  civilization 
of  the  period,  a  grand  and  noble  part  is  bequeathed  to  terra¬ 
cotta  to  perform  in  the  often  exacting  positions  of  archi¬ 
tecture,  and  help  perpetuate  the  achievements  of  man  to  the 
far  distant  coming  ages.” 

Many  buildings  of  recent  construction  in  England  and 
Germany,  as  well  as  in  this  country,  have  been  effectively 
enriched  through  the  judicious  employment  of  terra-cotta. 

In  England,  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  the  Char¬ 
ing  Cross  railway  station  and  hotel,  the  Dulwich  College 
and  the  great  Albert  Hall,  and  in  this  country  the  United 
States  Pension  Office  building  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  and 
many  other  recent  buildings  in  the  cities  of  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Boston,  are  all  admirable  examples,  the 
architectural  effect  produced  by  the  blending  of  brick-work 
and  terra-cotta  being  generally  both  harmonious  and  at¬ 
tractive. 

The  matter  of  designs  and  the  manner  of  treating  terra¬ 
cotta  are  subjects  for  much  thought,  and  require  not  only 
artistic  ideas,  but  the  exercise  of  good  judgment.  Taste  and 
expression  are  necessary,  but  this  must  not  be  accomplished 
at  the  cost  of  giving  or  conveying  a  sense  of  weakness. 

Good  construction,  next  utility,  and  last  decoration  are  the 


TERRA-COTTA. 


299 


order  in  which  the  design  should  be  carried  out.  The  last 
requires  an  artist  thoroughly  versed  not  only  in  form  and 
proportion,  but  who  is  inventive,  in  order  to  make  the  orna¬ 
ment  harmonize  with  the  purpose  of  the  object  and  also 
decorative  in  the  place  it  is  to  occupy. 

For  special  designs  of  this  character  the  project  of  offering 
premiums  has  been  found  to  work  well,  as  it  stimulates  am¬ 
bition,  and  thus  develops  the  best  ideas. 

The  plan  is  worthy  of  a  more  extensive  trial  than  it  has 
yet  received  in  this  country,  as  we  owe  our  progress  in  the 
production  of  architectural  terra-cotta  to  this  date  almost 
alone  to  the  private  designs  of  architects. 

Truth  is  an  absolute  necessity  in  all  terra-cotta  designs, 
and  as  a  desire  for  real  in  the  place  of  sham  materials  is  the 
cause  of  its  revived  use,  why  should  the  object  of  its  employ¬ 
ment  be  defeated] 

It  is  not  considered  an  honest  treatment  of  material  to 
make  painted  and  sanded  wood  take  upon  itself  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  stone,  and  when  terra-cotta  is  made  in  imitation  ot 
that  material  and  for  the  purposes  of  deception  it  is  equally 
an  error,  and  the  responsibility  for  it  should  rest  as  heavily 
upon  the  architect  who  allows  it  as  upon  the  manufacturer. 

All  colors  that  naturally  result  from  the  mixtures  and 
combinations  of  the  clavs  are  allowable,  but  there  should  be 
no  effort  to  imitate  other  substances,  as  one  of  the  greatest 
pleasures  which  arise  from  the  use  of  terra-cotta  in  archi- 
ture,  is  the  satisfaction  engendered  by  the  simple  merit  ot 
the  material. 

Terra-cotta  is  now  largely  employed  in  all  countries,  in 


300 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


the  shape  of  thin  plates  of  burned  clay,  as  a  roof  covering. 
In  Great  Britain  and  in  this  country  there  are  usually  but 
three  kinds  of  tiles  in  ordinary  use,  plain,  pointed,  and  pan¬ 
tiles;  the  former  of  these,  which  are  the  ones  in  common 
use,  are  flat  on  the  surface;  the  second  are  the  same  as 
the  first,  with  the  exception  that  the  exposed  end  is  either 
rounded  or  pointed ;  the  pan-tiles  are  raised  and  curved  on 
the  surface,  so  that  when  laid  on  the  roof  each  tile  overlaps 
the  edge  of  the  next  to  it,  and  protects  the  joint  from  the 
wet. 

The  Homans  used  flat  marble  tiles  turned  up  at  the  edges, 
with  a  row  of  semi-cylindrical  ones  over  the  point  to  protect 
them. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  roofing  tiles  were  very  extensively 
employed  in  England  for  buildings  of  moderate  cost;  but 
for  those  of  an  expensive  character  they  were  always  con¬ 
sidered  as  an  inferior  material  to  lead.  It  does  not  appear 
that  any  but  flat,  plain  tiles,  with  such  others  as  were  requi¬ 
site  for  the  ridges,  hips,  and  valleys,  were  used.  The  ridge- 
tiles  or  crests,  formerly  also  called  roof-tiles,  were  sometimes 
made  ornamental,  with  a  row  of  embellishments  resembling 
small  battlements  or  Tudor-flowers  on  the  top  and  glazed, 
and  still  are  occasionally  so  treated,  but  in  general  they  are 
quite  plain. 

When  the  ridge  of  the  roof  was  covered  with  lead,  these 
ornaments  were  formed  of  that  material,  as  at  Exeter  Ca¬ 
thedral. 

The  finials  of  gables  and  pinnacles  are  also  in  architec¬ 
tural  writing  sometimes  called  crests. 


TERRA-COTTA. 


301 


With  us  the  crestings  as  well  as  finials  are  manufactured 
in  terra-cotta  in  a  variety  of  designs  and  of  different  heights ; 
but  the  cresting  is  usually  one  foot  long,  has  lap  joints  and 
is  interchangeable;  the  cost  of  the  latter  is  usually  from 
forty  to  fifty  cents  per  lineal  foot,  and  the  finials  from  two 
dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  lineal  foot  for*  the  plain  ones,  to 
fifteen  dollars  per  lineal  foot  for  the  larger  and  for  those  of 
a  grotesque  design.  / 

Terra-cotta  crestings,  besides  being  used  with  tile,  are  also 
sometimes  employed  for  slate  and  other  pitched  roofs,  the 
rebating  of  the  joints  making  them  water-tight. 

In  earlier  times  it  was  not  unusual  to  employ  terra-cotta 
tiles  to  form  the  backs  of  fireplaces,  and  in  such  situations 
they  are  sometimes  laid  in  herring-bone  courses,  as  in  the 
great  hall,  Kenilworth.  Most  of  the  fireplaces  in  Bodiam 
Castle,  Sussex,  are  constructed  in  this  manner,  and  the  oven 
by  the  side  of  the  larger  fireplace  in  the  hall  is  also  built  of 
tiles. 

The  custom  in  houses  was  to  have  a  brazier  in  the 
centre  of  the  hall  and  the  smoke  to  escape  through  the 
louvre  or  ventilator  at  the  top ;  in  the  other  chambers  fire¬ 
places  were  introduced.  In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries  fireplaces  were  somewhat  plain,  the  ornamentation 
being  chiefly  the  carved  corbel  on  either  side  of  the  project¬ 
ing  hood.  In  the  Perpendicular  style  the  system  of  panel¬ 
ling  having  been  introduced,  this  was  applied  profusely  to 
the  ornamentation  of  the  fireplace  or  chemine. 

The  term  chimney  was  not  originally  confined  to  the 
shaft  of  the  chimney,  but  included  also  the  fireplace. 


302 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


There  is  no  evidence  of  the  use  of  the  chimney  shafts  in 
England  prior  to  the  twelfth  century.  In  the  part  of 
Bochester  Castle,  which  is  probably  of  the  date  1130,  there 
are  complete  fireplaces  with  semicircular  backs,  and  a  shaft 
in  each  jamb  supporting  a  semicircular  arch  over  the  open¬ 
ing,  which  is  enriched  with  the  zigzag  moulding.  Some  of 
these  project  slightly  from  the  wall ;  the  flues,  however,  ex¬ 
tend  only  a  few  feet  up  the  side  of  the  wall,  and  then  turn 
out  of  the  back,  the  openings  being  small  oblong  holes. 

But  a  few  years  afterwards  the  flues  were  carried  up 
through  the  entire  height  of  the  wall,  which  was  a  most 
decided  improvement  over  the  old  way. 

The  early  shafts  were  circular  and  of  great  height ;  but 
later  they  took  a  great  variety  of  forms,  and  during  the 
fourteenth  century  they  were  not  uncommonly  very  short. 
Previous  to  the  sixteenth  century  the  shafts  were  often  short, 
and  not  unfrequently  terminated  by  a  spire  or  pinnacle, 
usually  of  rather  low  proportions,  having  outlets  of  different 
forms  under  and  sometimes  in  them,  for  the  escape  of  the 
smoke. 

There  were  also  taller  shafts  of  various  forms,  square,  oc¬ 
tangular,  or  circular,  surmounted  with  a  cornice,  forming  a 
sort  of  capital,  the  smoke  issuing  from  the  top.  In  the  fif¬ 
teenth  century  the  most  common  form  of  chimney-shafts  was 
octangular,  though  they  were  at  times  square ;  the  smoke 
issuing  from  the  top,  unless,  as  was  sometimes  the  case,  they 
terminated  in  a  spire. 

Clustered  chimney-shafts  did  not  appear  until  towards  the 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century;  afterwards  they  became  very 


TERRA-COTTA. 


303 


common,  and  were  frequently  very  highly  ornamented,  espe¬ 
cially  when  of  brick. 

The  ease  and  economy  with  which  terra-cotta  can  be 
moulded  into  ornamental  designs  for  mantels  or  finishings 
for  fireplaces,  as  well  as  for  finishings  for  chimney-shafts, 
have  stimulated  the  production  of  a  great  variety  of  designs 
for  these  purposes,  and  especially  for  the  latter. 

The  chimney-caps  produced  in  terra-cotta  are  of  all  suit¬ 
able  shapes  and  sizes;  they  are  made  with  open  as  well  as 
with  protected  tops ;  the  stereotype  designs  are  often  good ; 
but  they  just  as  often  show  a  great  poverty  of  ideas  as 
regards  proportion  and  ornamentation  of  the  parts.  The 
designs  for  chimney-shaft  finishings  vary  from  a  small  cap, 
with  a  low  base  and  small  bevelled  chamfer  at  the  bottom, 
and  a  light  astragal  moulding  encircling  the  upper  portion 
and  dividing  the  plain  surface,  to  those  in  which  the  parts 
are  of  different  shapes,  variously  proportioned  and  moulded, 
ornamented  in  bas-relief,  and  the  top  terminating  in  a  gable 
roof  ornamented  with  crockets  and  finial.  In  many  of  these 
ornamental  chimney-caps  all  the  known,  and  some  of  the 
undiscovered,  stages  of  Gothic  architecture  are  brought  out 
in  unhappy  confusion. 

In  some  of  the  simpler  ones  the  designs  are  much  more 
correct  in  form  and  ornament ;  the  prices  usually  vary  from 
one  dollar  to  forty  dollars  each,  for  these  caps. 

In  the  handling  and  rehandling  of  terra-cotta  of  all  kinds 
it  is  liable  to  be  chipped  or  broken,  especially  on  the  cor¬ 
ners  where  it  is  to  be  joined  to  some  other  piece  of  the 
architectural  design. 


304  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

When  this  happens  it  is  best  to  examine  the  broken  part, 
and  if  it  has  a  slant  outward  or  inward  take  a  sharp  chisel 

I 

and  light  hammer  and  make  saw-teeth  indentures  in  the 
sharp  part  of  the  break,  and  then  when  it  is  in  position 
point  up  the  place  with  a  cement  composed  as  follows, 
which  will  produce  a  cement  which  will  gradually  indurate 
to  a  stony  consistency: — 

Mix  20  parts  clean  river  sand,  2  litharge,  and  1  of  quick¬ 
lime,  into  a  thin  putty  with  linseed  oil;  if  for  red  terra-cotta, 
color  to  the  desired  shade  with  Venetian  red  ;  if  buff,  with 
yellow  ochre ;  if  brown,  with  Spanish  brown.  The  cement 
should  be  made  all  at  one  time,  and  the  pointing  up  should 
also  be  so  done  as  to  avoid  a  variety  of  shades.  When  this 
kind  of  cement  is  applied  to  mend  broken  pieces  of  terra¬ 
cotta,  or  to  mend  broken  pieces  of  stone,  as  platforms  or 
exterior  or  interior  steps,  it  acquires  after  some  time  a  stony 
hardness. 

A  similar  composition  has  been  much  used  to  coat  over 
brick  walls,  under  the  name  of  “  mastic.” 

As  a  safe  rule,  all  classes  of  building  material  should  be 
faithfully  inspected  before  being  used,  and  to  this  terra-cotta 
is  no  exception ;  the  point  of  any  steel  instrument  is  a  simple 
test  of  the  texture  of  terra-cotta ;  it  should  not  penetrate  the 
surface,  and  if  the  point  should  strike  fire  through  contact 
the  ware  is  all  the  better.  A  sharp  metallic,  bell-like  ring 
and  a  clean,  close  fracture  are  good  proof  of  homogeneous¬ 
ness,  compactness,  and  strength.  Precision  of  the  forms  is 
to  the  highest  degree  essential,  and  can  result  only  from 


TERRA-COTTA. 


305 


homogeneous  material  and  a  thorough  and  experienced 
knowledge  of  firing. 

The  material  can  in  many  positions  be  ornamented 
by  judiciously  inlaying  it  with  majolica  and  other  tiles. 

The  modern  employments  for  terra-cotta,  architecturally, 
are  for  altars,  balusters,  baptismal  fonts,  bases  of  columns 
and  pilasters,  belt  courses,  capitals,  chimney  tops,  columns, 
consoles,  copings,  cornices,  crestings,  finials,  friezes,  foils, 
keys,  ventilators,  medallions,  mouldings,  newels,  niches, 
panels,  pediments,  pedestals,  pilasters,  skew-backs,  or  spring¬ 
ers  for  arches,  spandrels,  statues,  string  courses,  tiles,  tym¬ 
panums,  vignettes,  window  heads,  window  mullions,  and 
tracery. 

Terra-cotta  can  also  be  employed  for  brackets,  especially 
when  intended  to  support  a  statue,  corbels,  gargoyles,  oriel 
windows,  and  for  interior  uses  for  centre-pieces  for  ceiling 
lights,  mantels,  hearth  slabs,  and  in  fire-proof  buildings  for 
treads  and  risers  of  stairways,  plinths  for  architraves  of  door¬ 
ways,  base-mouldings  and  base-panels  around  the  bottoms 
of  rooms. 

Terra-cotta  is  also  suitable  for  all  kinds  of  garden  decora¬ 
tions,  balustrades,  basins,  bridges,  ferndelabras,  figures  for 
weather-vane  supports,  flower-baskets,  fountains,  garden 
steps,  garden  edging,  and  other  horticultural  appliances, 
lamp-posts,  lodges,  ornamental  conservatories,  individual 
seats,  settees,  summer-houses  and  statuettes,  also  for  dairies, 
mural  monuments,  tazzse,  vases,  and  window  flower  inclo¬ 
sures. 

20 


306 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


Section  II.  The  Manufacture  of  Terra-cotta. 

The  manufacture  of  terra-cotta  is  an  important  one  in 
France,  and  the  statues  and  other  objects  displayed  in  the 
Paris  exhibitions  have  been  remarkably  fine. 

In  its  manufacture  in  England  an  important  clay  has  long 
been  the  potter’s  clay  of  North  Devon  and  Dorsetshire,  the 
analysis  of  which,  by  Weston,  being  as  follows  : — 


North  Devon. 


Alumina  . 

.  29.38 

Silica 

.  52.06 

Lime 

.  0.43 

Magnesia  . 

.  0.02 

Iron  oxide  . 

.  2.37 

Potash 

.  2.29 

Soda 

.  2.56 

Water  combined 

.  10.27 

Dorsetshire. 

Alumina . 32.11 

Silica . 48.99 

Lime . 0.43 

Magnesia . 0.22 

Iron  oxide . 2.34 

Potash . '  .  2.31 

Soda . 2.33 

Water  combined . 9.63 


Each  of  these  clays  contains  a  small  amount  of  alkalies. 
The  clays  of  the  coal  measures,  technically  known  as  the 
“  fine-clays,”  are  also  much  esteemed  for  this  purpose. 

In  the  north  of  England  and  in  Scotland,  the  purest 


TERRA-COTTA. 


307 


lumps  of  fire-clay,  selected  by  their  color  and  texture,  are 
used  by  themselves  in  the  production  of  terra-cotta ;  but  the 
concerns  of  Mr.  Blashfield,  of  Stamford,  and  others  near 
London,  produce  a  body  of  much  better  texture  by  a  careful 
and  thorough  mixture  of  clays. 

It  requires  greater  care,  and  is  slightly  more  expensive  for 
labor;  but  these  are  small  considerations  in  comparison  to 
the  increased  compact,  homogeneous  and  better  vitrified 
body  which  results  from  using  a  mixture  of  clays. 

The  precise  combination  of  clays  varies  with  the  appear¬ 
ance  desired  for  the  terra-cotta ;  sometimes  it  is  a  light 
cream,  or  a  soft  buff  color;  at  other  times  it  may  be  a 
cherry-red,  or  a  hard  brownish-red  color. 

A  partial  vitrification  of  the  mass  is  desirable  in  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  terra-cotta,  as  it  enhances  the  durability  of  the 
body,  and,  in  order  to  achieve  this,  clays  like  the  Dorsetshire 
are  added,  the  small  amount  of  alkalies  which  they  contain 
acting  as  a  flux  and  fusing  the  body  to  a  harder  consistency. 

New  Jersey  produces  a  great  variety  of  clays,  and  the 
belt  of  country  underlaid  by  them  extends  entirely  across 
the  State,  and,  as  described  by  the  State  geologist,  includes 
an  area  of  three  hundred  and  twenty  square  miles ;  while 
the  area  within  which  these  deposits  have  been  worked  to 
the  present  time  is  only  about  seventy  square  miles,  the 
actual  openings  of  the  clay  beds  being  only  a  very  small 
fraction  of  the  last-named  area. 

The  average  depth  of  these  clay  deposits  is  more  than 
three  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  the  order  of  supersession  is 
shown  in  the  following  table : — 


308 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


1.  Dark  colored  clay  (with  beds  and  laminae  of  lignite) 

Feet. 

.  50 

2.  Sandy  clay,  with  sand  in  alternate  layers 

.  40 

3.  Stoneware  clay  bed . 

.  30 

4.  Sand  and  sandy  clay  (with  lignite)  .  ... 

.  50 

5.  South  Amboy  fire-clay  bed . 

.  20 

6.  Sandy  clay,  generally  red  or  yellow  .... 

.  3 

7.  Sand  or  kaolin . 

.  .  10 

8.  Feldspar  bed . 

.  5 

9.  Micaceous  sand  bed . 

.  20 

10.  Laminated  clay  and  sand . 

.  30 

11.  Pipe  clay  (top  white) . 

.  10 

12.  Sand  clay,  including  leaf  bed . 

.  5 

13.  Woodbridge  fire-clay . 

.  20 

14.  Fire  sand  bed . 

.  .  15 

f  Fire-clay . 

1 

.  15 

15.  Earitan  clay  beds  -(  Sandy  clay . 

.  .  4  . 

L  Potter’s  clay . 

.  .  20 

These  clays  are  one  of  the  most  important  elements  of  the 
material  wealth  possessed  by  the  State. 

Large  quantities  of  clays  are  marketed  annually  for  mak¬ 
ing  fire-brick,  pottery,  terra-cotta  ware  of  all  kinds,  tiles, 
retorts,  crucibles,  facings  for  wall  papers,  etc. 

The  average  price  per  ton  is  four  dollars,  and  the  average 
aggregate  production  of  fire-clay  alone,  in  its  crude  state, 
exceeds  one  million  dollars. 

New  uses  for  clay  of  this  character  are  being  developed  all 
the  while.  The  New  York  Terra-cotta  Lumber  Company 
has  established  large  works  at  Perth  Amboy  for  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  lumber  by  mixing  resinous  sawdust  with  the  wet 
clay,  which  is  left  porous  after  the  burning,  by  the  sawdust 
being  consumed. 


TERRA-COTTA. 


309 


The  material  is  thoroughly  ground  and  mixed  in  a  mill, 
carried  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  building  by  an  elevator 
bucket  belt.  There  it  is  shovelled  into  a  compressor,  through 
which  it  passes  to  the  floor  below,  and  is  forced  through  a 
die  into  any  requisite  shape,  and  remains  in  that  portion  of 
the  building  for  a  time,  to  stiffen.  It  is  then  carried  to  the 
ground-floor  and  dried  on  a  brick  floor  heated  by  flues  run¬ 
ning  underneath  it  from  a  furnace. 

It  now  goes  in  the  form  of  slabs  to  the  ovens,  where  it  is 
brought  to  a  great  heat,  which  burns  out  the  sawdust. 

This  occupies  about  forty-eight  hours,  and  produces  in 
that  period  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  tons  of  fire-proof 
lumber. 

It  is  next  planed,  tongued,  grooved,  or  sawed  into  any 
desirable  shape,  the  dust  being  carried  off  by  a  steam  blower. 

It  can  be  applied  to  a  variety  of  uses ;  it  is  light,  bulk  for 
bulk,  and  may  be  united  like  joiners’  work  or  nailed  into 
place  like  so  much  wood. 

It  has  been  employed  very  satisfactorily  for  filters  in  the 
waterworks  of  the  Holly  system.  When  immersed  in  boil¬ 
ing  asphalt  for  a  few  moments,  sufficient  bituminous  matter 
is  absorbed  to  resist  the  action  of  water,  as  the  asphalt  be¬ 
comes  part  and  parcel  of  the  material  and  does  not  flake  off 
when  exposed  to  cold  or  dampness,  as  with  common  brick, 
solid  terra-cotta,  or  iron. 

It  is  a  good  insulator,  and  the  cheapness  of  the  material 
and  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  made  water-proof  may 
bring  it  largely  into  use  for  underground  telegraphy. 

In  addition  to  the  purposes  which  have  been  named,  it 


310 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


can  be  used  for  grain  and  elevator  bins,  refrigerators,  safe 
and  vault  linings,  fire-proof  jackets  for  iron  columns,  safety 
warehouses,  shelves  and  partitions  for  libraries,  under  lin¬ 
ings  for  hearths,  etc. 

In  devoting  so  much  space  to  the  description  of  the  New 
Jersey  terra-cotta  clays,  no  slight  is  intended  to  the  terra¬ 
cotta  productions  of  other  sections  of  this  country,  as  the 
work  done  by  the  Boston  Terra-cotta  Company  and  the 
Lake  View  Terra-Cotta  Company,  of  Chicago,  Ill.,  is  of  a 
high  character.  They  seem  to  take  great  care  in  the  execu¬ 
tion  of  all  architectural  terra-cotta,  and  have  produced  a 
large  number  of  designs  for  private  and  public  buildings  in 
all  portions  of  the  country,  with  credit  to  themselves  and 
satisfaction  to  the  architects  and  owners. 

In  the  States  of  New  York,  Ohio,  and  Illinois  there  are 
works  for  the  production  of  this  material,  which,  although 
now  comparatively  small,  are  certain  ere  long  to  develop 
into  large  manufactories. 

In  speaking  so  highly  of  the  terra-cotta  clay  of  New 
Jersey,  I  do  not  mean  to  be  understood  that  it  is  suitable 
for  use  without  any  mixtures  or  other  special  preparation, 
as  no  terra-cotta  clay  can  be  so  worked  with  safety ;  nei¬ 
ther  should  the  terra-cotta  clay  be  confounded  with  fire-clay, 
the  requirements  for  which  are  different,  but  that  of  this 
State  is  also  one  of  the  best  in  this  country,  or  in  the  world. 

The  English,  Germans,  and  French  are  each  in  our  own 
van  in  the  production  of  tasteful  and  artistically  finished 
terra-cotta ;  but  with  a  superior  clay,  and  a  tendency  to 
develop  artistic  ideas  of  finish  and  form,  we  shall  not  long 
be  in  the  rear. 


! 


TERRA-COTTA. 


311 


The  body  of  clay  which  has  been  described  is  best  developed 
at  Woodbridge  and  Perth  Amboy,  and  is  practically  inex¬ 
haustible,  and  although  its  presence  has  been  known  for 
nearly,  if  not  quite,  two  centuries,  its  employment  for  the 
production  of  architectural  terra-cotta  is  of  but  very  recent 
years. 

It  is  conveniently  situated  between  the  large  and  wealthy 
cities  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  and  being  contiguous 
to  the  seaboard,  and  in  easy  communication  by  rail  with 
all  the  developing  cities  of  the  country,  this  section  should 
become  to  us  what  the  Staffordshire  district  is  to  England. 

The  largest  terra-cotta  works  in  this  country  are  located 
at  Perth  Amboy  in  New  Jersey.  Woodbridge  and  Perth 
Amboy  both  owe  their  prosperity  to  manufactures  of  terra¬ 
cotta,  fire-brick,  and  tiles,  and  the  traveller  journeying  west¬ 
ward  in  New  Jersey,  from  either  of  these  thrifty  towns,  will 
find  his  way  skirted  by  frequent  hollow's  and  excavations, 
stretching  irregularly  on  either  hand. 

The  color  of  the  rich  clay,  denuded  of  the  soil  and  often 
exposed,  varies  in  shade  from  a  light  cream-color,  almost 
white,  to  a  soft  buff,  and  sometimes  the  clay  will  be  of  a 
dark  red  color,  owing  to  the  abundant  presence  of  the  oxide 
of  iron,  a  very  light  trace  of  which  impregnates  all  the  clay 
in  the  circumjacent  region. 

The  red  clays  containing  oxide  of  iron  in  abundance  are 
used  only  when  it  is  desired  to  give  the  terra-cotta  a  deep 
red  brick  color,  which  is  sometimes  done  for  friezes,  panels, 
tiles  and  other  architectural  requirements. 

For  a  long  distance  the  way  between  Woodbridge,  Perth 


312 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


Amboy,  and  New  Brunswick  is  marked  by  many  of  the  ex¬ 
cavations  that  have  been  noted,  and  which  are  sometimes 
of  great  depth.  From  the  bottom  of  these,  winding  wagon 
roads  lead  through  banks  of  clay  in  which  large  gangs  of 
laborers  are  regularly  at  work  digging  material  to  be  used 
in  the  production  of  terra-cotta  and  fire-brick,  and  removing 
that  which  is  unsuitable  for  these  purposes. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  undulating,  and  it  is  but 
thinly  settled,  and  often  a  heavy  growth  of  birches,  maples, 
and  young  pines  spreads  over  it,  giving  no  indications  of 
the  riches  it  conceals,  for  underlying  it  is  one  vast  bed  of 
terra-cotta  clay,  which  for  fineness  of  texture  and  plasticity 
has  no  equal  in  the  world. 

In  applying  the  term  plasticity  to  this  clay,  I  do  not  mean 
it  in  the  common  acceptance  of  that  term ;  but  in  addition 
to  the  quality  of  receiving  and  giving  form,  that  also  of  re¬ 
taining  it,  not  only  while  it  is  being  moulded,  but  in  that 
most  trying  time  to  all  clays,  which  is  the  period  that  it  is 
yielding  its  chemical  water  and  “going  through  the  sweat.” 

It  may  not  be  generally  known  that  all  things  made  of 
moulded  clay,  although  they  may  appear  to  be  perfectly  dry 
when  they  go  into  the  kiln,  again  become  softer  and  almost  as 
plastic  as  they  were  when  first  moulded,  and  it  is  this  stage 
of  burning  that  is  so  destructive  to  form  in  the  production  of 
artistic  and  architectural  terra-cotta.  In  describing  this  crit- 
ical  period  in  burning,  I  have  used  the  common  parlance  of 
the  laborers  employed  about  kilns,  for  two  reasons,  the  first 
being  that  there  is  no  technical  term  applicable  to  the  same 
condition  of  things,  and  the  second  is  that  “  going  through 


TERRA-COTTA. 


313 


the  sweat”  is  a ‘most  accurate  and  literal  description.  Should 
the  adobes  or  sun-dried  bricks  of  Egypt,  which  have  been 
exposed  to  the  influences  of  that  moisture-extracting  climate 
for  more  than  three  thousand  years,  be  placed  in  a  kiln  and 
burned,  the  result  would  be  the  same,  they  would  “go 
through  the  sweat”  and  become  soft  and  plastic  before  they 
were  burned  into  hard  bricks. 

The  mechanical  water  has  been  extracted  from  them,  but 
the  chemical  water  contained  in  the  clay  has  never  been 
driven  out  by  burning.  The  adobe  before  burning  could  be 
soaked  in  water  and  in  a  few  hours  it  would  be  just  as  plas¬ 
tic  as  it  was  when  first  made,  thousands  of  years  ago,  but 
after  burning  its  plasticity  is  forever  lost. 

The  vitrifying  ingredients  usually  added  to  the  terra-cotta 
clays  are  pure  white  sand,  old  pottery,  and  fire-bricks  finely 
pulverized,  and  clay  previously  burned,  termed  “grog;”  these 
are  employed  in  various  proportions,  sometimes  amounting 
to  nearly  thirty  per  cent,  of  the  mass. 

The  alkaline  salts  contained  in  the  clays  yield  an  efflores¬ 
cence,  which,  acting  upon  the  silicates  of  the  surface,  vitrify 
to  a  greater  degree  the  exterior  of  the  terra-cotta,  and  this 
harder  face  should  remain  intact,  and  under  no  avoidable  cir¬ 
cumstances  be  allowed  to  be  chipped,  chiselled,  or  broken. 

Having  prepared  the  mixture  of  clays  and  other  ingre¬ 
dients,  it  is  reduced  to  the  consistency  of  flour,  the  pans  in 
the  mills  are  either  stationary  or  revolving;  but  the  latter  are 
much  preferable,  as  they  usually  do  more  and  better  work. 

Subsequently,  careful  pugging  or  tempering  is  necessary, 
so  as  to  thoroughly  incorporate  and  mix  the  combination  of 


314 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


clays  and  added  ingredients.  Hot  water  is  sometimes  used 
in  tempering  the  mass  ;  but  a  jet  of  steam  injected  into  the 
interior  of  the  clay  cylinder,  about  the  centre  between  top 
and  outlet,  during  the  process  of  grinding  is  a  great  aid  to 
the  clay. 

A  one-half  inch  pipe  will  answer  in  most  cases,  and  the 
quantity  of  steam  injected  can  be  regulated  at  some  conve¬ 
nient  point  by  a  suitable  valve. 

Moulding. 

The  clay,  after  being  brought  to  the  desired  consistency, 
is  formed  in  a  mould,  usually  in  several  parts,  the  clay  being 
pressed  into  them  by  the  hand,  and  as  soon  as  one  section 
is  finished  another  is  added,  and  so  the  moulding  of  intri¬ 
cate  pieces  of  terra-cotta  progresses. 

The  making  of  moulds  for  terra-cotta,  when  the  design  is 
intricate,  is  a  matter  of  great  nicety,  and  requires  careful  fit¬ 
ting  of  the  parts,  which  is  not  always  easy,  from  the  shrink¬ 
ing  of  the  parts  not  being  the  same. 

The  making  of  the  moulds  is  generally  one  of  the  chief 
delays  in  the  manufacture  of  terra-cotta  for  buildings;  these 
moulds  cannot  be  changed  at  will,  nor  can  alterations  be 
made  in  the  ornaments  as  the  work  proceeds,  not  only  be¬ 
cause  the  moulds  cannot  be  changed,  but  because  the  pieces 
cannot  be  cut  without  ruining  the  design.  The  first  work 
of  the  architect,  after  his  plans  are  accepted,  should  be  the 
preparation  of  all  the  details  for  the  terra-cotta  portion,  as 
each  piece  has  its  place  and  no  other  will  fill  it  in  the  build- 


TERRA-COTTA. 


315 


ing  in  that  position  for  which  it  was  designed.  There  can 
be  none  of  that  hurry  and  hasty  preparation  of  details  now 
so  common  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic;  there  must  be 
carefully  matured  working  details  for  this  material,  the  man¬ 
ner  of  joining  the  parts  can  best  be  left  to  the  modeller, 
who  can  use  locked,  rebated,  or  flanged  joints,  as  may  be 
best. 

The  production  of  objects  in  terra-cotta  from  models  and 
reproduction  from  casts  are  chiefly  mechanical,  but  often¬ 
times  call  for  experience  and  skill.  A  great  difficulty  is 
often  presented  in  taking  many  good  forms  from  one  plaster 
cast,  as  the  cast  is  liable  to  deteriorate. 

There  are  several  ways  for  overcoming  this ;  but  that 
which  was  largely  employed  in  reproducing  some  of  the 
most  difficult  terra-cotta  work  in  the  great  Albert  Hall  and 
other  large  works  in  England,  is  the  best. 

In  this  process  the  plaster  cast  is  covered  with  grease  or 
soap,  and  then  protected  by  a  rubber  cloth,  on  the  top  of 
which  modelling  clay  is  placed  to  the  depth  of  four  or  five 
inches  and  fully  covering  the  surface  of  the  cast,  then 
against  the  modelling  clay  a  backing  of  plaster  is  built,  in 
two  or  more  parts  as  may  be  desired,  and  makes  the  back¬ 
ing  to  the  mould. 

When  sufficiently  hard  the  backing  of  plaster  is  removed 
and  the  rubber  cloth  and  modelling  clay  taken  out  and  laid 
to  one  side,  the  backing  of  plaster  being  again  replaced. 
There  will  now  be  an  interval  between  the  face  of  the  model 
and  the  plaster  wall  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  clay  re¬ 
moved,  which  is  filled  with  liquid  gelatine. 


316 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


After  about  fourteen  hours  the  impression  in  gelatine 
may  be  removed  and  placed  upon  the  original  backing  of 
plaster;  from  the  gelatine  a  plaster  cast  is  now  taken;  from 
the  latter  five  or  six  terra-cotta  reproductions  may  be 
moulded  without  injury,  provided  the  face  of  the  plaster 
mould  be  slightly  greased  each  time,  and  care  be  observed 
in  removing  the  clay. 

The  great  advantage  of  gelatine  is  its  strict  accuracy  in 
reproducing  minutely  each  line  of  the  plaster  model;  the 
yielding  nature  of  the  material  commends  it  especially  for 
undercut  carvings,  as  it  contracts  while  being  drawn  from 
the  incision,  and  upon  it  being  released  immediately  resumes 
the  perfect  accuracy  of  its  shape. 

For  all  stereotype  forms  of  terra-cotta  the  clay  is  usually 
moulded  from  smoothly  finished  moulds  of  iron,  brass,  or 
wood. 

In  addition  to  thoroughly  mixing  the  clays,  it  is  necessary 
to  so  arrange  the  moulds  as  to  give  an  equal  thickness  to 
all  parts  of  the  body  of  the  material,  in  order  to  lessen  the 
chances  of  cracking  in  drying  or  warping  in  the  kiln. 

Section  III.  Drying. 

When  the  shaped  clay  is  withdrawn  from  the  mould,  it 
is  usually  dried  by  exposure  to  the  sun  or  air,  or  near  the 
hot  kilns ;  but  none  of  these  methods  are  proper,  as  a 
greater  uniformity  of  drying  is  absolutely  necessary  for 
moulded  terra-cotta  of  all  classes. 

This  is  best  accomplished  by  placing  the  green  ware  in  a 
room  equipped  especially  for  the  purpose. 


TERRA-COTTA. 


317 


The  walls  of  this  building  should  be  of  brick,  and 
“daubed;”  or,  commonly  speaking,  plastered  on  the  inside 
with  soft  mud  made  from  the  loamy  sand  or  washings  found 
in  gulleys  and  other  places  where  it  has  been  carried  by 
the  water.  The  “  dob”  or  plastering  should  be  applied  to 
the  inside  faces  of  the  walls  by  the  hand,  and  well  rubbed 
into  all  cracks  and  openings,  the  same  as  is  done  for  a  kiln, 
before  placing  the  ware,  preparatory  to  firing.  The  walls 
should  be  built  so  as  to  be  about  six  feet  and  six  inches  in 
height  from  the  surface  of  the  finished  floor  to  the  top  of 
the  wall-plate,  and  the  roof  have  a  pitch  of  about  thirty- 
two  degrees  for  a  building  thirty-two  feet  in  width.  At  the 
apex  of  the  roof  there  should  be  a  combined  vertical  skylight 
and  ventilator,  which  should  be  operated  from  the  outside, 
by  having  the  sash  to  swing  on  pivots  placed  in  the  centre, 
at  top  and  bottom ;  at  the  bottom  corner  of  this  sash  a  small 
piece  of  hinged  iron  should  be  screwed,  to  which  a  stout 
wire  should  be  securely  fastened ;  this  wire  should  pass  over 
a  small  pulley,  and  terminate  through  a  long  handle  of 
wood  at  each  end  of  the  building,  and  within  a  distance  of 
the  ground  equal  to  one-half  of  the  diameter  of  the  sash 
in  the  ventilator.  When  the  handle  touched  the  ground, 
the  person  operating  the  contrivance  would  know  that  all 
the  sashes  in  the  ventilator  were  opened.  If  desired,  a  guide 
or  marks  could  be  made  on  the  end  of  the  building,  so  as  to 
indicate  any  degree  of  opening.  The  operation  of  the  ven¬ 
tilators  on  the  outside  of  the  building  is  much  better  than 
to  have  men  stumbling  around  among  the  hall-dried  ware. 
The  pulley  at  the  end  of  the  building,  from  which  the  wire 


318 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


would  be  worked  to  open  the  ventilators,  should  be  placed 
on  the  roof,  at  a  distance  away  from  the  face  of  the  venti¬ 
lators  equal  to  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  sash.  The 
pulley  at  the  end,  used  to  close  the  ventilators,  should  be 
placed  slightly  on  the  inside  of  the  face  line  of  the  sash. 

The  terra-cotta  should,  if  possible,  be  dried  by  a  system 
of  steam  coils;  then,  if  not,  by  an  arrangement  of  flues 
supplied  with  heat  from  two  furnaces  placed  in  opposite  posi¬ 
tions,  in  the  same  end  of  the  drying-room.  The  flues  from 
the  furnaces  should  continually  travel  and  return  the  length 
of  the  room ;  and,  finally,  the  two  separate  systems  of  flues 
should  be  joined  in  one  flue,  by  which  it  should  connect 
with  the  chimney,  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  end  of  the 
building  opposite  the  furnaces.  In  order  to  save  fuel  and 
obtain  a  larger  supply  of  heat,  each  of  the  furnaces  should 
have  a  large  hot  air-chamber  directly  over  the  fire-box;  the 
separation  between  the  fire-box  and  hot  air-chamber  should 
be  a  stout  piece  of  boiler  iron  built  in  the  walls  of  the  fur¬ 
nace;  large-sized,  cold  air-ducts  should  lead  from  the  exterior 
to  the  hot  air-chambers.  The  heat  from  these  chambers 
could  be  turned  into  the  flues  just  described,  or  by  a  proper 
damper  and  flues  be  carried  to  any  desired  portion  of  the 
building.  It  could  also  be  used  to  heat  a  separate  system  of 
flues  in  the  centre  of  the  building,  and  the  heat  at  convenient 
points  be  allowed  to  escape  into  the  room,  leaving  the  flues 
from  the  fire-boxes  to  heat  other  portions  of  the  building. 

The  floor  of  this  building  should  not  be  in  a  low  or  damp 
position,  and  good,  deep  drains  should  be  cut  around  it,  and 


TERRA-COTTA. 


319 


strictly  maintained  in  a  clean  and  unobstructed  condition  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year. 

Before  the  flues  are  built,  a  base  made  of  concrete,  and 
not  less  than  four  inches  in  depth,  should  thoroughly  cover 
every  part  of  the  floor  of  the  room. 

This  concrete  should  be  made  of  one  part  good  cement, 
two  parts  clean,  sharp  sand,  and  four  parts  broken  bricks, 
stone,  or  refuse  terra-cotta  if  it  can  be  spared ;  but  none  of 
this  broken  material  should  be  larger  than  a  small  hen’s  egg. 

The  concrete  should  be  solidly  packed  with  a  rammer 
until  water  shows  on  the  surface,  and  then  paved  with  brick. 

This  base  should  be  put  in,  whether  the  building  be 
heated  by  steam  coils  or  by  flues,  as  it  intercepts  the  natural 
dampness  which  is  at  all  times  attracted  to  the  surface  of 
the  ground  by  heat,  and  which  would  retard  the  drying  of 
the  terra-cotta. 

The  roof  should  be  covered  with  tin,  and  the  water 
under  no  circumstances  whatsoever  allowed  to  drip  to 
the  ground,  but  be  caught  in  gutters  at  the  eaves  of  the 
building,  and  carried  through  a  down  spout  and  tight  sewer 
to  a  point  well  away  from  the  building. 

The  bricks  forming  the  flues  should  be  placed  on  edge  on 
the  top  of  the  pavement,  and  a  space  of  about  one-half  inch 
should  be  left  between  the  ends.  Tiles  for  the  top  of  the 
flues  should  be  about  one  and  one-half  inch  in  thickness,  six 
or  eight  inches  in  width  and  seventeen  inches  and  a  fraction 
in  length,  could  be  made  on  the  premises,  the  flues  should 
be  about  six  inches  wide. 

The  tiles  forming  the  tops  of  the  flues,  and  being  also  the 


320 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


floor  of  the  building,  should  be  closely  joined  and  have 
moist  fire-clay  worked  into  them,  that  is,  those  which  con¬ 
tain  the  smoke  and  gases  from  the  furnaces. 

If  desired,  these  flues  could  also  be  formed  of  flat  terra-cotta 
pipe  wide  at  the  top  and  narrow  at  the  bottom,  and  the  wide 
portion  be  made  to  form  the  floor  of  the  building. 

Before  any  ware  is  placed  in  this  drying-room,  the  con¬ 
struction  of  which  has  been  described,  a  slow  fire  should  be 
made  in  the  furnaces  and  gradually  increased  for  two  or 
three  days  until  all  the  dampness  has  been  driven  from  the 
flues  and  inside  of  the  walls;  during  this  period  the  venti¬ 
lators  and  doors  should  be  fully  opened  so  as  to  allow  the 
steam  to  escape  as  quickly  as  possible. 

If  the  chimney  should  be  obstinate  and  inclined  not  to 
“  draw”  at  first,  a  fire  should  be  made  in  the  bottom  of  it  so 
as  to  attract  the  smoke  from  the  furnaces  and  the  air  from 
the  flues. 

The  drying  would  be  better  at  all  times  should  the  ceiling 
be  lathed  and  covered  with  one  coat  of  rough  plastering. 

By  using  a  room  constructed  as  this  or  some  plan  having 
the  same  object  in  view,  all  kinds  of  ware  could  be  fully 
dried,  it  would  not  be  so  liable  to  injury,  which  often  results 
from  hastily  removing  soft  terra-cotta  from  out  of  the  sun  or 
from  about  the  kilns  at  the  approach  of  rain;  besides,  the 
ware  would  retain  a  more  accurate  form. 

In  addition  to  these,  and  many  other  advantages,  the  pre¬ 
liminary  stages  of  burning  could  be  hastened  without  injury 
to  the  ware,  and  would  eventuate  in  a  saving  of  fully  fifteen 
per  cent,  in  fuel  and  in  the  labor  of  burning,  i.  e.,  in  the 
time. 


TERRA-COTTA. 


321 


In  even  moderate-sized  works  the  saving  of  time  in  hand¬ 
ling  and  rehandling  ware,  in  burning  time  and  in  fuel,  in 
cracked  and  other  shaky  ware,  would  in  one  season  more 
than  pay  for  a  cheaply  constructed  and  furnace-heated  dry¬ 
ing-room. 

The  system  of  steam-coil  drying  is  preferable  in  many 
things  to  any  other  plan;  but  probably  only  large  works 
would  care  to  go  to  the  expense  of  putting  them  in. 

Both  of  these  plans  have  been  fully  tested,  and  they  are 
not  experiments,  but  successful  and  accomplished  improve¬ 
ments. 

The  system  of  steam  drying  is  employed  in  a  brick-yard 
in  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  through  its  steam-heated  driers 
there  pass  every  twenty-four  hours  from  eighty-six  to  ninety 
thousand  bricks,  and  the  bricks  are  often  so  soft  when  they 
go  into  the  driers,  directly  from  the  machine,  that  they  can 
scarcely  be  handled  and  rubbed  without  finger-marking. 
But  the  next  day,  be  it  rain  or  sunshine,  the  bricks  are  set 
in  the  kiln  and  successfully  burned  in  less  than  the  usual 
time.  If  the  same  quantity  of  bricks  were  dried  to  an  equal 
degree  by  the  wind,  in  the  same  period  of  time,  they  would 
be  cracked  and  so  generally  shaky  that  no  market  could  be 
found  for  them,  but  as  it  is,  the  stock  produced  is  sound  and 
in  demand. 

In  addition  to  the  advantages  which  have  been  named 
from  driers  of  this  kind,  there  is  one  other,  which  may  have 
nothing  to  do  with  money  gained  or  lost,  but  which  should 
he  esteemed  above  all  others ;  it  is  the  satisfaction  of  know¬ 
ing  that  all  green  stock  along  with  some  special  design,  some 
21 


322 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


prized  effort,  is  just  as  safe  in  these  driers  as  if  it  were  in  the 
kiln  and  a  faithful  burner  had  it  in  charge. 

In  all  works  producing  either  terra-cotta  or  brick,  in 
which  both  the  moulding  and  drying  are  done  in  the  open 
air,  too  much  liberty  is  taken  with  the  weather  by  all  hands. 
Everybody  keeps  on  working  until  the  rain  is  close  upon 
him,  and  oftentimes  actually  falling,  before  any  effort  is 
made  to  save  the  stock  that  has  been  made,  and  then  all 
hands,  men  and  boys,  hastily  move  a  part  to  shelter,  and  at 
the  same  time  ruin  it.  After  keeping  this  up  for  a  while,  \ 
and  getting  water-soaked,  they  stop,  and  leave  the  remain¬ 
der  of  the  stock  for  the  elements  to  finish,  which  is  what 
they  had  best  have  done  with  that  which  they  had  dis¬ 
figured,  as  no  unshapely  pottery  of  any  kind  ought  ever  to 
go  into  a  kiln.  Nobody  is  satisfied  with  it  after  it  is 
burned,  and  the  first  loss  in  cases  of  this  kind  is  always  the 
best. 

It  should  be  remembered  by  all  persons  about  works  of 
this  class,  and  at  all  times,  that  everything  in  the  shape  of 
moulded  clay  is  extremely  perishable  stock  until  it  comes 
safely  out  of  the  kiln,  and  that  in  any  case  of  threatened 
danger,  the  duty  of  everybody  is  to  save  and  secure  that 
which  has  been  produced,  and  that  may  at  any  time  be  ex¬ 
posed  to  loss. 

I  have  dwelt  thus  long  on  the  drying  and  care  of  unbumed 
terra-cotta,  because  it  is  a  subject  that  has  much  to  do  with 
the  production  of,  as  well  as  the  profit  in  this,  and  in  kin¬ 
dred  branches  of  pottery.  The  drying  processes  described 
can  be  safely  conducted  every  day  in  the  year,  if  necessary. 


TERRA-COTTA. 


323 


Section  IV.  Burning. 

One  of  the  hardest  colors  to  obtain  uniformity  in  the  tint, 
is  the  elegant  buff,  and  to  secure  this  rich,  pleasing  color  in 
terra-cotta,  requires  long  burning,  and  a  highly  experimental 
knowledge  of  firing,  as  well  as  a  thorough  acquaintance 
with  the  clay,  and  its  behavior  in  the  kiln. 

Coal  should  not  be  used  in  firing  light-colored  terra-cotta, 
as,  although  the  usual  products  of  combustion  are  separate 
from  the  ware,  sulphurous  fuel  darkens  and  tarnishes  the 
surface.  Wood  should  be  used,  in  burning  light-colored 
terra-cotta ;  but  for  red  or  darker  colored  ware,  no  objection 
should  be  urged  against  the  use  of  coal. 

Kilns  for  burning  terra-cotta  are  generally  circular  in  form, 
and  are  expressly  built  so  as  to  obtain  a  greater  degree  and 
better  distribution  of  heat  than  can  possibly  be  obtained  in 
an  ordinary  open  brick-kiln.  A  perspective  view  of  terra¬ 
cotta  kilns  and  works  is  shown  in  the  frontispiece  of  this 
volume. 

The  principle  of  applying  the  heat  in  terra-cotta  kilns  by 
the  overdraft  system  is  much  approved.  In  these  kilns  the 
heat  is  carried  to  the  top  through  flues  in  the  walls,  and  the 
kiln  being  covered,  and  the  draft  toward  the  bottom,  the 
heat  descends  through  the  ware. 

•  • 

In  this  class  of  kilns,  the  stock  is  not  so  liable  to  crack, 
break,  warp,  and  twist,  as  in  the  Hoffman  and  other  annular 
constructed  kilns. 

But  the  principal  gain  in  the  circular  overdraft  kilns  is, 


324 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


the  impartial  and  equitable  distribution  of  heat,  thereby 
securing  a  greater  uniformity  in  the  color  of  the  terra-cotta, 
which,  in  addition  to  the  savings  mentioned,  makes  them 
very  desirable. 

The  usual  time  required  for  burning  terra-cotta  is  from 
five  to  seven  days,  which  is  dependent  upon  the  condition 
of  the  ware  when  it  is  set  into  the  kiln,  as  well  as  upon 
the  purposes  for  which  it  is  required. 

% 

Section  V.  Improvement  in  the  Construction  of 
Terra-Cotta  Kilns. 

The  object  of  the  arrangement  shown  in  Figs.  123  to  125 
is  to  modify  the  construction  of  the  doors  of  kilns  for  burn¬ 
ing  terra-cotta  in  such  a  way  that  the  heat  will  be  dis¬ 
tributed  equally  through  the  door  and  the  other  parts,  so 
that  all  of  the  kiln  will  have  a  uniform  temperature. 

The  invention  is  that  of  Mr.  Alfred  Hall,  of  Perth  Amboy, 
N.  J.,  a  gentleman  who  has  spent  a  lifetime  in  the  manufac- 
ture  of  terra-cotta,  and  it  consists  in  so  arranging  a  door  for 
terra-cotta  kilns,  with  flues  in  its  inner  part,  communicating 
with  and  forming  continuations  of  the  ordinary  flues  in  the 
kiln-wall,  and  connected  with  the  furnaces  by  flues,  that 
a  uniform  distribution  of  heat  all  around  the  kiln  will  be 
effected,  and  all  the  articles  in  the  kiln  will  receive  an  equal 
degree  of  heat,  and  thereby  be  burned  more  satisfactorily 
than  is  usual. 

Fig.  123  is  a  front  elevation  of  the  improvement,  shown 
as  applied  to  a  kiln.  Fig.  124  is  a  sectional  plan  view  of 


TERRA-COTTA. 


325 


the  forward  part  of  the  kiln.  Fig.  125  is  a  sectional  eleva¬ 
tion  of  the  door. 

A  represents  the  furnace-doors,  B  the  ash-pits,  and  C  the 
door  of  the  kiln  D.  To  the  side  parts  of  the  door-frame  are 


attached  plates  E ,  which  project  at  the  sides  of  the  door, 
and  have  eyes  formed  in  their  outer  ends  to  receive  pins  F. 
The  pins  F  also  pass  through  holes  in  the  ends  of  the  U  bars 
or  clevises  G ,  between  which  ends  the  eyes  of  the  plates  E 
are  placed.  The  bends  of  the  bars  G  pass  also  through 
eyes  in  the  forked  ends  of  the  right  and  left  screws  L.  rlhe 
screws  L  pass  through  right  and  left  screw-holes  in  the  ends 
of  the  bars  M,  which  cross  the  door  (7,  and  have  a  longitud- 


326 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


inal  slot  formed  through  them  to  receive  a  lever,  so  that 
they  can  be  turned  to  draw  the  screws  L  inward  and  firmly  : 
clamp  the  door  G  in  place.  With  this  construction  the 
door  G  can  be  removed  by  removing  the  pins  K,  the  screws 
7,  and  the  bars  M. 

In  the  inner  part  of  the  door  C  are  formed  flues  7,  which,  j 
when  the  door  is  closed,  communicate  with  and  form  con¬ 
tinuations  of  the  ordinary  flues  J  in  the  inner  parts  of  the  : 
kiln-walls.  With  this  construction  the  inner  part  of  the 
door  and  the  inner  wall  of  the  kiln  will  be  heated  perfectly, 
so  that  there  will  be  no  cool  part  of  the  kiln,  as  the  products 
of  combustion  from  the  furnaces  A  are  introduced  into  the 
hues  7  of  the  door  C  through  flues  a  in  the  same  manner  as 
they  are  introduced  into  the  flues  J  in  the  inner  wall  of  the 
kiln,  so  that  the  heat  will  be  distributed  evenly  all  around. 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


327 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  ROOFING  TILES  AND 

SEWER-PIPES. 

Section  I.  General  Remarks. 

The  word  tile  does  not  often  occur  in  the  Bible ;  but  that 
tiles  were  used  in  very  ancient  times,  not  only  in  buildings, 
but  also  for  many  purposes  for  which  we  employ  paper,  there 
is  not  the  least  doubt,  and  this  is  particularly  true  in  regard 
to  Assyria,  in  which  country  almost  every  transaction  of  a 
public  or  private  character  was  first  written  upon  thin  tablets 
of  clay,  or  tiles,  and  then  baked. 

The  prophet  Ezekiel,  who  was  among  the  captives  near 
the  river  Chebar  in  the  land  of  the  Chaldeans,  is  among  the 
first  to  describe  the  use  to  which  the  tile  was  sometimes  put 
for  receiving  drawings  or  portraying  of  plans. 

In  595  B.  C.  Ezekiel  was  commanded  to  make  use  of 
this  Assyrian  practice  at  the  time  when  the  siege  of  Jeru¬ 
salem  was  prefigured,  the  commandment  being  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  language :  “  Thou  also,  son  of  man,  take  thee  a  tile, 
and  lay  it  before  thee,  and  portray  upon  it  the  city,  even 
Jerusalem,”  Ezekiel  iv.  1. 

The  plan  of  the  siege  and  all  the  details  were  fully  ex¬ 
plained,  and  the  manner  and  period  in  which  they  were  to 
be  carried  out  were  predicted. 


328 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


From  the  profuseness  with  which  the  Assyrians  employed 
colors  in  the  decoration  of  bricks  and  many  internal  as 
well  as  exterior  architectural  positions,  and  in  their  most 
gorgeously  dyed  apparels  and  head-dresses,  household  fur¬ 
nishings,  horse  equipments,  and  in  fact  in  every  position  that 
it  was  possible  to  attract  the  eye  or  please  the  taste,  it  is  not 
improbable  that  when  tiles  were  used  for  roofing  purposes 
they  were  also  richly  colored  and  ornamented  in  a  great 

variety  of  designs,  imparting  to  the  roofs  a  highly  ornate 

' 

appearance. 

Rome  was  originally  roofed  with  shingles,  which  gave  a 
general  invitation  to  the  great  and  destructive  fires  which 
so  often  occurred;  and  no  effort  seems  to  have  been  made 
to  lessen  the  danger  from  this  source  until  about  the  time  of 
the  war  with  Pyrrhus,  at  about  which  time  tiles  of  burned 
clay  were  introduced. 

In  Knight’s  “  Mechanical  Dictionary”  we  find  three  good 
illustrations,  with  description  of  the  tiles  used  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  and  modifications  of  the  pantile.  About  the 
time  of  Pausanias,  620  B.  C.,  tiles  of  marble  were  largely 
employed  in  Greece;  the  temples  of  Jupiter  at  Olympus, 
and  of  Athenae  at  Athens  (the  Parthenon),  were  thus 
covered. 

The  ancient  Greeks  always  clung  to  marble ;  at  no  time 
did  they  show  any  great  desire  to  employ  burned  clay 
in  their  architectural  constructions.  Roof  tiles  of  bronze 
and  gilt  were  used  in  some  cases. 

The  lower  edges  of  the  joint  tiles  were  protected  and 
ornamented  by  frontons ,  and  the  edges  of  the  flat  tiles  were 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


329 


turned  up  and  covered  by  semi-cylindrical  joint  tiles,  termed 
imbrices. 

Fig.  126  shows  a  form  of  marble  tiles  employed  by  the 
Homans,  and  Fig.  127  the  marble  tiles  sometimes  used  by 
the  Greeks ;  they  have  both  been  imitated  in  clay. 


Fig.  126.  Fig.  127. . 


In  Roman  architecture,  both  flat  and  round  tiles  were 
largely  employed  ;  roofs  were  not  uncommonly  covered  with 
flat  and  curved  tiles  alternating. 

The  plain  tiles  now  in  general  use  in  England  weigh 
about  from  two  to  two  and  one-half  pounds  each,  and  ex¬ 
pose  about  one-half  their  surface  to  the  weather,  four  hun¬ 
dred  of  them  covering  one  hundred  superficial  feet  of  roof 
surface ;  they  are  sometimes  hung  upon  the  sheathing  board 
by  two  oak  pins  inserted  through  holes  left  by  the  moulder. 

Plain  tiles  are  also  now  made  with  grooves  and  fillets  on 
the  edges,  so  that  they  can  be  laid  without  overlapping  the 
usual  distance,  the  grooves  leading  the  water.  This  may 
answer  for  some  cheap  constructions  where  lightness  is  also 
a  consideration ;  but  the  plan  is  a  bad  one,  as  they  will  cer¬ 
tainly  leak  in  the  driving  rains  and  drifting  snows,  and  they 
are  also  subject  to  injury  by  hard  frosts. 


330 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


Pantiles  were  first  used  in  Flanders,  the  wavy  surface 
lapping  under,  and  being  overlapped  by  the  adjacent  tiles. 
The  English  pantiles  weigh  from'  five  to  five  and  one- 
quarter  pounds,  expose  ten  inches  to  the  surface,  and  one 
hundred  and  seventy-five  of  them  cover  a  square,  or  one 
hundred  superficial  feet  of  roof  surface. 

A  gutter  tile  has  come  into  use  in  England ;  it  forms  the 
lower  course,  overhangs  the  lower  sheathing  board  or  lath, 
and  is  nailed  to  it. 

Sliding  tiles  are  used  as  substitutes  for  weather-boarding ; 
holes  are  made  in  them  during  moulding,  and  they  are 
secured  by  flat-headed  nails  to  the  lath. 

The  exposed  face,  called  the  gauge,  is  sometimes  indented 
to  represent  courses  of  brick;  fine  lime  mortar  is  introduced 
between  them,  when  they  rest  one  upon  the  other. 

These  sliding  tiles  are  sometimes  called  weather-tiles,  and 
sometimes  mathematical-tiles,  the  names  being  derived  from 
their  exposure  or  marking.  They  have  a  variety  of  forms, 
having  curved  or  crenated  edges,  and  are  also  variously  orna¬ 
mented  with  raised  or  encaustic  figures. 

Modifications  of  the  pantiles  are  shown  in  the  examples 
a  b ,  Fig.  128,  the  edges  being  turned  up  and  down  respec¬ 
tively  ;  c  d  e  are  modifications  of  the  ridge-tiles,  in  which  the 
gutter  and  ridge  are  placed  alternately,  f  g  show  modes  of 
securing;  the  first  is  moulded  with  a  lug,  which  secures 
itself  in  position  by  catching  above  the  lath  of  the  roof ;  the 
second  shows  a  tile  moulded  with  two  lugs,  by  which  it 
engages  the  tiles  of  the  courses  above  and  below. 

h  h'  h"  are  elevation,  section,  and  perspective  views  of  a 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


331 


tile  exposing  a  semicircular  face  to  the  weather.  The  semi¬ 
circular  portion  has  a  drop  flange,  which  catches  over  the 


re-entering  curves  of  the  upper  part,  these  curves  having 
upturned  flanges  for  that  purpose.  Whenever  roof  tiles  are 
to  be  glazed,  they  are  varnished  after  being  burned ;  the  glaze 
is  then  put  on,  and  the  tiles  are  then  placed  in  a  potter’s  oven 
and  remain  until  the  glaze  commences  to  run.  The  glaze  is 
usually  made  from  what  are  called  lead  ashes,  being  lead 
melted  and  stirred  with  a  ladle  till  it  is  reduced  to  ashes  or 
dross,  which  is  then  sifted,  and  the  refuse  ground  on  a  stone 
and  resifted.  This  is  mixed  with  pounded  calcined  flints. 

A  glaze  of  manganese  is  also  sometimes  employed,  which 
gives  a  smoke-brown  color. 

For  a  black  color  iron  filings  are  sometimes  used;  for 
green,  copper  slag ;  and  for  blue,  smalt  is  employed,  the  tile 
first  wetted  and  the  composition  laid  on  from  a  sieve. 


332  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

At  one  time  very  inferior  roof-tiles  were  made  in  Eng¬ 
land  on  account  of  the  careless  weathering  or  preparation  of 
the  clay  employed;  and  in  order  to  cure  this  a  statue  of 
Edward  IV.  required  that  all  clay  for  tiles  should  be  dug, 
or  cast  up,  before  the  first  of  November,  and  not  made  into 
tiles  before  the  March  following. 

The  garden  of  the  Louvre  in  Paris  was  called  the  Tuil- 
eries,  as  being  a  place  where  tiles  were  anciently  made ;  a 
magnificent  palace  was  begun  there  in  1564  by  Catherine 
de  Medicis,  wife  of  Henry  II.,  finished  by  Henry  IV.,  and 
splendidly  adorned  by  Louis  XIV.,  but  was  sadly  defaced 
in  our  times,  during  the  Franco-Prussian  war. 

Modern  tile-covered  roofs  add  greatly  to  the  picturesque 
appearance  of  buildings. 

A  portion  of  a  roof  covered  with  diamond-shaped  tiles  is 
shown  in  Fig.  129,  and  the  form  of  the  tile  is  shown  in  a 
section,  and  a  plan  of  face  and  bed. 

Fig.  130  shows  a  roof  covered  with  tiles  of  various  shapes, 
and  Fig.  131  shows  the  six  forms  of  roofing  tiles  in  most 
common  use  in  this  country. 

A  great  advantage  for  the  tile  roof  is  that  it  is  a  non-con¬ 
ductor,  and,  therefore,  cooler  in  the  summer  season  than 
any  other  kind  of  roof.  The  buff  tile,  being  lighter  in  color, 
is  the  coolest,  as  it  does  not  absorb  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Tiles 
are  also  a  better  protection  against  lightning  than  the  light¬ 
ning-rod,  as  the  latter  attracts  electricity,  while  the  former  is 
a  non-conductor.  Insulators,  made  of  pottery,  are  extensively 
used  on  telegraph  lines  in  Europe  and  portions  of  America. 

The  rain  water  collected  from  a  tile  roof  is  much  purer 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES 


333 


and  cleaner  than  from  any  other  kind  of  roof,  as  the  tiles 
are  very  smooth,  and  no  dust  or  soot  settles  upon  them. 


Fig.  129. 


Fig.  131. 


334  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA.  j  1 

Tiles  are  indestructible,  and  are  not  affected  by  heat  or 
cold.  They  will  not  crack  and  slide  off  the  roof,  like  slate, 
leaving  the  sheathing  exposed,  when  subjected  to  sudden 
heat,  as  by  the  burning  of  an  adjoining  building. 

After  doing  service  on  one  structure,  the  tile  can  be  taken 
off  and  used  on  other  buildings.  Tiles  should  not  be  put 
upon  a  roof  that  has  less  than  one-quarter  pitch  (a  slant  of 
six  inches  to  the  foot),  although  we  have  seen  some  roofs  of 
less  pitch  which  are  satisfactory.  A  roof  to  support  tile 
should  be  somewhat  stronger  than  for  shingles.  The  rafters 
should  be  2x6,  18  inches  apart,  and  well  stayed,  so  that 
they  cannot  spread.  The  sheathing  should  be  of  soft  wood, 
of  even  thickness,  and  close  together.  Generally  felt  or 
tarred  paper  is  placed  under  the  tile,  although  it  is  not 
necessary  to  make  the  roof  water-tight,  but  it  stops  circula¬ 
tion  and  makes  the  roof  warmer  in  winter,  and  adds  but 
little  to  the  cost. 

Section  II.  The  Process  of  Manufacturing 
Roofing  Tiles. 

When  the  process  of  manufacturing  roofing  tiles  is  con¬ 
ducted  by  hand,  the  method  is  nearly  the  same  in  this  coun¬ 
try  as  in  England,  and  but  few  improvements  have  been 
made  in  this  mode  of  production ;  but  by  the  machine  pro¬ 
cess  we  are  enabled  to  manufacture  very  satisfactory  roofing 
tiles  at  but  a  small  cost. 

The  clay  of  which  the  tiles  are  made  is  dug  and  spread 
out  in  shallow  beds  to  disintegrate,  and  a  hot  sun  or  dry 
frosty  weather  is  best  for  this. 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


335 


In  all  cases  the  clay  should  next  be  finely  pulverized  by 
passing  through  iron  rollers  or  other  suitable  appliances, 
and  too  much  care  cannot  be  given  to  this  branch  of  the 
preparation  of  the  clay,  as  has  before  been  observed. 

The  clay-mills  shown  in  Chapter  VI.  can  be  used  to  ad¬ 
vantage  in  pulverizing  the  clay. 

A  good  pug-mill  which  can  have  the  knives  made  larger 
at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom  and  used  for  tempering  the  clay 
when  the  tiles  are  made  by  hand,  is  shown  in  Chapter  IV. 

The  usual  form  of  pug-mill  employed  in  England  is  gene¬ 
rally  six  feet  high,  three  feet  in  diameter  at  the  larger  or 
upper  end,  and  two  feet  at  the  bottom. 

The  clay  is  kneaded  and  completely  mixed  by  a  revolving 
cast-iron  spindle,  which  carries  a  series  of  flat  steel  arms,  so 
arranged  as  to  form  by  rotation  a  worm-like  motion  upon  the 
clay,  which  is  pressed  from  the  larger  to  the  smaller  diameter 
of  the  tub  in  which  the  clay  is  confined,  and  finally  comes 
oozing  out  of  an  aperture  at  the  bottom ;  in  this  manner  of 
tempering  great  cohesive  power  is  given  to  the  clay. 

The  clay  is  then  ready  to  make  roofing  tiles,  the  mould¬ 
ing  is  usually  conducted  in  a  shed,  and  most  of  the  manu¬ 
facturers  prefer  to  place  their  tiles  in  the  open  air,  if  the 
weather  allows. 

The  moulding  table  or  bench  is  supported  on  four  legs, 
which  are  well  under  the  table,  leaving  the  two  ends  of  the 
top  of  the  table  to  project  liberally.  The  coal-dust  box, 
14x8  inches,  is  at  the  left  hand  of  the  moulder,  at  the 
corner  of  the  table,  and  the  moulding  board,  14  x  10  inches, 
is  usually  placed  slightly  to  the  right  of  the  coal-dust  box. 


336  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

The  mould  employed  is  12  x  7§  inches  and  \  inch  thick, 
made  of  oak,  and  usually  plated  with  iron. 

The  moulder  works  a  lump  of  clay  by  hand  into  an  ob¬ 
long  square,  the  mould  is  placed  on  the  bench,  and  fine  coal 
dust  sprinkled  over  it ;  the  lump  of  clay  is  then  taken  up 
and  thrown  into  it  with  force,  which  is  cut  off  level  with  the 
top  of  the  mould  by  a  brass  wire,  strained  upon  a  wooden 
bow;  the  lump  of  surplus  clay  is  removed,  and  that  in  the 
mould  is  finished  by  adding  a  little  clay  to  it,  if  necessary, 
and  smoothing  the  face  over  with  a  wooden  tool. 

The  moulded  tile  is  then  placed  upon  a  thin  board,  first 
sprinkled  with  fine  coal  dust,  and  so  the  process  is  repeated, 
the  lump  of  clay  being  added  to  every  time  six  tiles  are 
moulded.  The  off-bearer  carries  two  tiles  at  a  time,  one 
on  his  head,  and  one  on  his  hands,  to  the  floor,  where  they 
are  allowed  to  remain  for  four  hours  out  of  doors  in  fair 
weather,  and  then  collected  and  placed  together,  the  nib 
end  changed  alternately,  so  as  to  hack  them  closely  and 
squarely. 

In  this  condition  they  remain  for  two  days,  so  as  to  allow 
them  to  toughen ;  the  situation  of  this  hacking  should  be 
dry,  but  not  hot. 

The  set  or  curved  form  is  then  given  by  placing  six  of 
the  tiles  at  one  time  on  the  top  of  the  horse,  which  is  a  three- 
legged  stool,  having  the  top  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
longer  than  the  tile,  the  top  being  a  convex  curve  to  a  radius 
of  about  ten  feet  and  three  inches,  and  having  a  height  of 
about  2  feet  7  inches  from  the  level  of  the  ground  to  the 
top  of  the  block. 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


337 


The  nib  end  is  reversed  each  time,  so  as  to  allow  the  tiles 
to  lie  closely  together  without  injury,  and  a  wooden  block 
lifted  on  top  of  the  tiles,  raised  by  the  projecting  ends,  and 
three  quick  blows  given  with  it  on  the  tiles ;  this  block  is 
concave  and  curved,  so  as  to  correspond  with  and  fit  neatly 
over  the  upper  surface  of  the  horse. 

The  tiles  are  then  carried  away  and  stacked  edge  together 
in  the  shape  of  a  half  diamond,  three  tiles  being  used  to 
form  each  side ;  two  laths  are  then  placed  on  the  top  of  the 
first  hack  of  tiles,  one  lath  at  each  outer  edge;  another 
hack  of  tiles  is  placed  on  the  laths,  so  arranged  as  to  form  a 
full  diamond  with  the  openings  left  between  the  first  course 
of  tiles ;  two  laths  are  then  placed  in  the  same  way  on  the 
top  of  the  second  course  of  tiles,  and  the  third  course  is 
then  hacked  so  as  to  form  a  full  diamond,  with  the  openings 
left  between  the  second  course  of  tiles. 

This  is  the  final  drying,  and  they  are  then  carried  to  the 
oven  twelve  at  a  time,  with  the  edges  of  the  tiles  resting 
against  the  breast  of  the  carrier. 

Objections  to  roofing  tile,  in  this  country,  have  heretofore 
been  made  to  the  effect  that  the  tile  was  heavy,  made  of 
coarse  clay,  poorly  burned,  that  it  would  absorb  a  great 
amount  of  moisture,  so  that  freezing  and  thawing  would 
cause  it  to  crumble,  and,  in  appearance,  it  was  anything  but 
handsome.  Whatever  foundation  these  objections  may  have 
had  in  the  first  product  of  tiles,  our  manufacturers  have  now 
fully  met  and  remedied  these  drawbacks  to  their  use. 

All  roof  tiles  require  more  careful  burning  than  bricks, 
and  before  they  are  placed  in  the  oven,  the  bottom  is 
22 


338  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

covered  with  bricks,  so  as  to  take  the  first  flash  of  the  fire, 
which  would  destroy  a  course  of  tiles  in  that  position  from 
the  warping  and  discoloring. 

On  the  top  of  this  course  of  bricks  about  nine  thousand 
tiles  are  set,  which  form  a  square  in  the  heart  of  the  kiln, 
the  space  between  the  tiles  and  the  curved  sides  of  the  oven 
being  usually  filled  with  bricks. 

The  tiles  are  set  edgewise  in  lots  of  twelve,  called  bungs, 
changing  their  direction  with  each  lot,  being  set  cross  and 
lengthwise  alternately.  They  are  placed  in  a  vertical  posi¬ 
tion,  and  the  nibs  of  the  tiles  space  them  off  from  each 
other  and  support  them  in  a  vertical  position ;  the  checkered 
manner  in  which  they  are  placed  in  the  oven,  insuring  full 
action  of  the  fire  through  the  stock. 

A  uniformity  of  heat  is  a  great  desideratum  in  burning 
tiles,  and  the  old  form  of  circular  oven,  so  much  employed 
in  Staffordshire,  is  found  to  answer  the  purpose,  and  do  the 
work  more  thoroughly  than  any  other  in  use. 

A  wall  is  sometimes  built  around  the  oven  in  order  to 
protect  the  fires,  and  prevent  one  from  being  urged  more 
than  another  by  the  changing  direction  of  the  wind. 

A  sufficient  space  is  left  between  the  wall  and  the  oven 
to  allow  the  fireman  to  attend  conveniently  to  his  fires;  five 
feet  six  inches  is  usually  high  enough  for  this  wall. 

The  oven  having  been  filled,  the  doorway  is  walled  up 
with  bricks  and  faithfully  daubed  over  with  loam  and  sand, 
the  fires  are  lighted  and  kept  slowly  burning  for  the  first 
five  hours,  after  which  time  they  are  then  progressively  in¬ 
creased  for  the  next  thirty-three  hours,  making  the  total 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


339 


time  thirty-eight  hours  for  hard  fired  tiles,  four  tons  of  coal 
being  consumed  in  the  burning.  The  fireman  determines 
the  heat  by  directing  his  sight  to  the  mouths  and  top  outlet 
of  the  oven;  when  the  heat  is  reached,  and  before  the  fires 
burn  hollow,  the  mouths  are  stopped  up  with  ashes  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  cold  air  from  cooling  the  oven  too  quickly. 

These  ovens  are  fired  once  a  week,  but  can  be  fired  easily 
three  times  in  two  weeks  if  so  desired. 

The  manufacture  of  plain  roofing  tiles  can  be  conducted 
with  a  small  capital,  the  process  and  requirements  not  being- 
very  intricate  or  expensive. 

But  to  conduct  the  manufacture  of  all  the  tiles  required 
for  roofing,  and  the  other  articles  generally  produced  in 
large  tileries  requires  a  large  capital  and  a  thorough  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  business  in  all  its  details. 

In  all  the  large  tile  works  all  the  operations  of  manufac¬ 
ture  are  conducted  under  shelter,  and  a  large  variety  of 
articles  are  produced,  of  which  the  following  list  is  but  a 
part : — 

Chimney-pots,  circulars  for  setting  furnaces,  etc.,  column 
bricks,  for  forming  columns,  drain  pipes,  drain  tiles,  fire¬ 
bricks,  garden-pots,  hip  tiles,  oven  tiles,  paving  tiles,  pantiles, 
plain  tiles,  ridge  tiles,  and  anything  in  the  line  required  to 
order. 

With  the  exception  of  fire-bricks,  the  clay  used  for  all 
these  articles  is  the  same ;  but  for  circular  bricks,  column 
bricks,  kiln  bricks,  oven  tiles,  paving  tiles  and  paving  bricks 
a  certain  quantity  of  loam  is  mixed  with  it,  which  for  the 
oven  tiles  must  be  of  a  very  good  character. 


340 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


To  faithfully  describe  the  manufacture  of  all  these  articles 
would  increase  the  size  of  this  volume  out  of  all  proportion 
to  its  design ;  the  principle  of  procedure  is  the  same  in  each 
case,  but  no  two  articles  are  made  or  finished  in  a  similar 
way,  each  requiring  different  tools  and  moulds. 

The  London  tileries,  which  are  the  largest  in  the  world, 
pay  particular  attention  to  proper  preparation  of  the  clay 
for  the  particular  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  used ;  there 
not  being  the  same  haste  to  get  the  clay  into  the  kiln  that 
is  so  often  shown  by  some  smaller  manufacturers. 

The  first  stage  in  the  London  tileries  is  the  weathering, 
which  is  about  the  same  as  has  been  described  for  plain  tiles, 
the  object  being  to  open  the  pores  of  the  clay,  separate  the 
particles  and  thereby  compel  it  to  absorb  the  water  more 
readily  in  the  process  of  mellowing. 

This  is  accomplished  by  throwing  the  clay  into  pits,  cov¬ 
ering  with  water  and  leaving  it  to  soften  or  ripen.  The  clay 
is  now  usually  passed  through  the  rollers  and  the  stones 
taken  out  before  it  is  put  into  soak,  which  is  a  term  also 
used  for  the  mellowing  process. 

The  kilns  used  for  burning  the  wares  produced  are  usu¬ 
ally  conical  in  shape  for  more  than  one-half  the  height, 
about  40  feet  wide  at  the  base,  and  having  a  total  height  of 
about  25  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  ash-pit  to  the  top  of 
the  dome,  which  is  slightly  convex.  These  kilns  are  quite 
expensive  to  build,  eight  thousand  dollars  being  about  a  fair 
average,  fire-bricks  being  generously  employed  in  the  inte¬ 
rior  ;  this  class  of  kilns  is  largely  used  for  burning  pan¬ 
tiles. 


t 


l 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


341 


Before  the  pantiles  are  placed  in  the  kiln,  one  course  of 
burned  bricks  is  laid,  herring-bone  fashion,  one  and  one-half 
inches  apart  over  the  bottom. 

The  tiles  are  then  stacked  upon  this  as  closely  as  they 
can  be,  one  course  above  the  other.  The  hatchways  are 
bricked  up  as  the  body  of  the  kiln  is  tilled.  When  the  top 
layer  is  done,  it  is  covered  or  platted  with  one  course  of  un¬ 
burned  tiles  laid  flat ;  then  on  the  top  of  these  a  course  of 
burned  pantiles  is  loosely  laid.  The  hatchways  are  care¬ 
fully  daubed  over,  the  fires  lighted  and  kept  gently  burning 
for  twenty-four  hours,  and  then  gradually  increased,  until  at 
the  end  of  six  days  they  are  let  to  die  out,  the  burning 
being  accomplished. 

The  class  of  goods  which  the  kiln  contains  has  a  great 
influence  upon  the  quantity  of  fuel  consumed  in  a  burning, 
chimney-pots,  garden  pots,  etc.,  not  requiring  so  much  as 
more  solid  goods. 

In  this  country,  the  manufacture  of  roofing-tiles  is  a 
comparatively  new  industry;  but  it  is  rapidly  growing  in 
public  favor,  and  their  employment  is  becoming  quite 
general. 

Many  large  and  costly,  as  well  as  small  or  ordinary  dwell¬ 
ing-houses,  church  buildings,  extensive  work-shops,  barns, 
etc.,  are  covered  with  tile  roofs. 

With  us,  the  tiles  are  usually  of  three  colors,  red,  buff, 
and  black.  The  color  of  the  red  tile  is  produced  by  the 
employment  of  clay  containing  a  large  per  cent,  of  oxide  of 
iron ;  this  is  sometimes  present  in  the  beds  with  fire-clays, 
which  are  the  class  usually  employed  for  roofing-tiles;  at 


342 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


other  times,  it  is  necessary  to  mix  some  foreign  clay,  con¬ 
taining  a  large  per  cent,  of  oxide  of  iron  with  the  material. 

The  color  is  made  deeper  and  more  uniform  by  rubbing 
the  tiles  with  finely-sifted  red  moulding  sand ;  this  should 
be  done  while  the  tile  is  quite  damp,  so  as  to  get  the  sand 
to  stick  or  hold  to  the  faces. 

The  buff-colored  tile  is  made  of  nearly  pure  fire-clay,  and 
it  is  slightly  lighter  in  weight  than  the  red  tile. 

The  black  tile  is  made  by  washing  it  over  before  burning 
with  manganese  dissolved  in  water,  which,  in  the  process  of 
burning,  is  converted  into  a  perfectly  durable  coating  of  great 
hardness. 

The  patterns  usually  employed  with  us  for  roofing  tiles 
are  of  several  kinds;  the  large  diamond,  the  small  diamond 
shingle,  round  corner,  round  end,  gothic,  etc.,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  131.  t 

The  large  diamond  tiles  are  14  inches,  the  length  of  the 
diamond,  and  inches  in  the  width ;  250  cover  one  hun¬ 
dred  surface  feet,  10  by  10  feet,  called  a  “  square,”  and 
weigh  650  pounds. 

They  are  fastened  with  two  sixpenny  galvanized  iron  or 
tinned  nails.  This  kind  of  tile  is  used  more  than  the 
other  styles,  as  it  is  lighter  in  weight,  and  less  in  cost. 

The  small  diamond,  6  by  10  inches,  requires  500  to  cover 
a  square,  and  it  weighs  600  pounds.  It  is  nailed  with  five- 
penny  nails,  and  is  used  more  especially  for  towers,  porches, 
dormer  windows,  and  in  side  panels,  for  ornamental  purposes. 

The  shingle  tiles  are  the  plain  fiat  tiles  described  in  the 
commencement  of  this  section ;  they  are  tliree-eighths'  of  an 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


343 


inch  thick,  have  two  counter-sunk  nail  holes,  and  are  made 
of  any  size,  not  exceeding  6  by  12  inches;  they  can  be  had 
for  round  or  square  towers,  dormer  windows,  etc.,  and  the 
points  are  sometimes  cut  semicircular,  octagonal,  gothic,  or 

pointed. 

They  have  been  largely  used  in  the  Eastern  States,  and  on 
some  expensive  buildings  for  roofing  and  side  ornamentation, 
as  at  the  State  Capitol  at  Albany,  New  York,  on  which 
building  they  are  wired  to  iron  ribs. 

These  tiles  are  generally  laid  about  5  inches  exposed  to 
the  weather,  which  requires  about  480  for  a  square,  weight 
being  1100  pounds. 

The  pantiles  measure  12  inches  in  length  by  inches  in 
width  at  one  end,  and  4J  inches  at  the  other,  and  if  they  are 
lapped  3|  inches  on  the  roof,  350  will  be  required  for  a 
square,  which  will  weigh  850  pounds. 

This  kind  of  tile  makes  a  strong  roof  cover,  and  can  be 
walked  upon  without  danger  of  breaking,  and  it  is  especially 
suitable  for  workshops  and  factories ;  it  is  sometimes  made 
with  lugs  to  hang  on  to  ribs,  the  use  of  nails  being  thereby 
avoided,  which  are  liable  to  rust  away  where  much  bitumin¬ 
ous  coal  is  used.  It  is  also  made  with  nail  holes,  to  secure 
it  to  the  sheathing.  Brick-making  is  now  mostly  done  by 
machinerv,  and  there  is  not  the  least  doubt  but  that  tiles  of 
all  kinds  will  also  be  generally  so  made  both  in  this  country 
and  in  Europe. 

The  roofing  tiles  which  have  just  been  described  are  made 
by  machinery  by  the  firm  of  J.  C.  Ewart  &  Co.,  Akron, 

Ohio. 


344  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

The  machines  which  they  employ  were  patented  by  Mr. 
C.  J.  Merrill  about  ten  years  ago.  Mr.  Merrill  was,  until  a 
short  time  since,  a  partner  of  Mr.  J.  C.  Ewart,  the  firm  then 
being  Merrill  &  Ewart. 

In  describing  this  class  of  machines,  I  shall  be  more  par¬ 
ticular  and  minute  than  in  the  description  of  brick-machines, 
as  the  workings  of  tile-machines,  as  well  as  the  manner  of 
their  construction,  are  not  generally  so  well  understood. 

The  successful  inventor  of  labor-saving  machinery  leads 
the  van  of  civilization,  as  man’s  physical  requirements  in¬ 
crease  ;  these  can  be  met  from  this  source  at  an  enormous 
saving  of  time  and  labor ;  machines  stimulate  business, 
add  increased  interest  to  all  pursuits,  concentrate  the  hours 
of  employment,  and  it  is  only  from  this  source  that  the  hours 
of  labor  which  the  workingmen  of  this  and  other  countries 
are  trying  to  curtail,  can  be  successfully  reduced,  and  all  the 
wants  of  mankind  supplied  at  the  same  time. 

From  the  start,  workingmen  have  directed  their  influ¬ 
ence  against  labor-saving  machinery ;  but  in  defiance  of 
their  efforts  against  it,  good  has  resulted  to  them,  in  spite  of 
themselves.  Would  they  like  to  go  back  to  the  old  hours  of 
labor,  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  live  as  they  did  then,  and  do 
without  the  advantages  of  education  to  themselves  and  chil¬ 
dren,  now  so  common  in  this  country  ?  Cheap  homes,  food 
and  raiment,  as  well  as  cheap  books,  and  other  sources  oi 
knowledge  are  the  results  of  labor-saving  machinery. 

So  anxious  are  the  governments  of  New  Zealand  and  other 
Australasian  colonies,  as  well  as  nearly  all  the  governments 
of  South  America,  for  the  introduction  of  tile-machines  as 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


345 


well  as  brick-machines,  that  they  admit  this  class  of  ma¬ 
chinery  free  of  duty,  and  in  some  of  the  exhibitions  in  those 
countries  they  have  even  paid  a  large  part  of  the  cost  of 
their  transportation  from  this  country  and  from  England, 
and  our  inventors  can  with  profit  push  their  contrivances  of 
this  character  in  those  countries  as  well  as  in  Mexico. 

The  Merrill  roofing  tile-machine  shown  in  Figs.  132  to 
143  is  a  valuable  invention,  and  the  tiles  which  it  has  pro¬ 
duced  cover  many  roofs  of  private  and  public  buildings  in 
all  parts  of  this  country. 

The  practical  operation  of  the  machine  is  as  follows:  The 
wheels  are  made  to  revolve  in  direction  of  the  arrows ;  a 
certain  portion  of  clay  is  placed  in  the  dies,  which  by  the 
corresponding  curvature  of  their  faces,  when  the  dies  begin 
to  move,  press  the  clay  at  one  corner  or  end  by  a  roll¬ 
ing  motion,  thereby  packing  the  clay  into  all  parts  of  the 
dies,  and  forcing  the  surplus  clay  out  at  the  opposite  corner. 
While  the  clay  is  thus  being  pressed  the  nail-holes  are 
punched,  the  punches  being  forced  out  by  the  head  or  bar 
coming  in  contact  at  the  proper  time  with  cam  A,  Fig. 
132,  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines,  attached  to  the  inside  of 
the  standards,  one  on  each  side  of  the  wheel,  over  which  the 
projecting  ends  of  the  head  slide,  thereby  forcing  out  the 
punches  into  the  dies,  and  perforating  the  clay.  The  mo¬ 
ment  that  the  holes  are  punched  the  punches  are  withdrawn 
into  the  wheel  by  the  springs.  At  this  time  the  tongue 
at  the  bottom  of  the  lower  die  is  forced  out  by  the  projecting 
ends  of  the  head  H  coming  in  contact  with  the  side  cams  J5, 
Fig.  132,  thereby  forcing  outward  the  rod  d,  which  so  far 


346  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

«  '•* 

pushes  out  the  tongue  as  to  allow  the  end  of  the  tile 
thereon  to  fall  upon  the  endless  apron  N,  Fig.  132,  whereby 
it  is  moved  away.  The  use  of  the  steam  in  connection  with 
the  dies  is  to  heat  them  so  as  to  relieve  the  clay  after  the 
tile  receives  the  pressure. 


Fig.  132  is  a  side  elevation  of  the  machine.  Fig.  133  is 
an  end  elevation.  Fig.  134  is  a  plan  view.  Fig.  135  is  a 
detached  transverse  section.  Fig.  136  is  a  detached  vertical 
section.  Figs.  137,  138,  and  139  are  detached  sections. 
Figs.  140,  141,  and  142  are  views  of  a  tile  made  by  the 
machine.  Fig.  143  is  a  detached  section. 

Like  letters  of  reference  refer  to  like  parts  in  the  several 


views. 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


341 


The  construction  of  the  various  parts  of  the  machine  is 
as  follows : — 

In  the  drawing,  Fig.  133,  A  B  represent  a  pair  of  stand¬ 
ards,  in  which  are  journaled  two  wheels,  C  D ,  which  en¬ 
gage  each  other  by  the  gearing  E.  Under  each  of  the  dies 
or  moulds  is  formed  a  steam-chamber  0,  Fig.  136,  into 
which  steam  is  admitted  through  the  pipe  b.  One  end  of 
this  pipe  terminates  in  one  of  the  chambers,  and  the  oppo¬ 


site  end  terminates  in  the  hollow  shaft  Gl  of  the  wheel, 
into  which  steam  is  received  into  the  boiler.  The  several 
steam-chambers  are  connected  to  each  other,  for  the  trans¬ 
mission  of  steam  by  a  pipe  d.  Figs.  133  and  134,  extending 
around  the  wheel  from  one  chamber  to  another.  The  pur¬ 
pose  of  this  chamber  will  presently  be  shown.  In  the  faces 
of  the  wheels  referred  to  is  arranged  a  series  of  dies  or 


348 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


moulds  F  G,  which  are  so  constructed  as  to  give  the  desired 
shape  to  the  article  to  be  made,  which,  in  this  machine,  is  a 
roofing  tile.  Detached  views  thereof  are  shown  in  Figs.  140 
and  141,  which  give  a  view  of  both  sides  of  the  tile.  The 
upper  and  lower  dies  are  constructed  substantially  alike, 
differing  only  in  the  fact  that  in  the  bottom  of  each  of  the 
lower  dies  is  placed  a  metallic  plate  or  tongue  71,  of  the 
same  form  as  the  inside  of  the  die,  and  upon  which  the  clay 
is  placed  and  prepared,  and  whereby  the  pressed  article  is 
forced  out  from  the  die  by  raising  the  tongue,  as  will  pres¬ 
ently  be  shown.  The  tongue  referred  to  is  raised  out  of  the 
lower  die  by  a  rod  7,  Fig.  136,  one  end  of  which  is  secured 
to  the  tongue,  whereas  the  opposite  end  is  secured  to  a  bar 
//,  Fig.  136.  The  two  ends  of  this  bar  project  through 
slots  c  in  the  arms  I  of  the  wheel,  in  which  the  bars  slide 
for  operating  the  tongues  of  the  dies.  J ,  Fig.  136,  is  a 
spring  surrounding  the  rod  d  referred  to,  the  purpose  of 
which  is  to  retain  the  tongue  within  the  die.  Fig.  137  rep¬ 
resents  an  enlarged  detached  view  of  one  of  the  dies,  the 
face  of  which  and  also  the  face  of  the  tongue  being  etched 
or  otherwise  made  with  a  roughened  surface,  so  as  to  confine 
small  portions  of  air  between  these  surfaces  and  the  clay, 
which  air,  when  the  pressure  is  removed,  will  expand  and 
raise  or  loosen  the  clay  from  the  roughened  surfaces.  Fig. 
139  represents  detached  sections  of  the  upper  and  lower  dies, 
showing  their  relation  to  each  other  while  pressing  the  clay 
between  them;  and  Fig.  138  shows  a  longitudinal  section 
of  a  die,  all  of  which  shows  the  form  of  the  dies  for  making 
the  tiles,  shown  in  Figs.  140  and  141.  In  the  upper  wheel 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


349 


(7,  there  is  an  arrangement  similar  to  that  in  the  lower  wheel 
for  ejecting  the  tile,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  punch  the 
nail-holes  e  in  the  sides  of  the  tile,  and  which  arrangement 
consists  of  the  two  punches  iT,  Fig.  143,  attached  to  the 
sliding  head  or  bar  D,  the  ends  of  which  project  through 
slots  of  the  arms  of  the  wheel.  The  punches  are  projected 
through  the  rim  of  the  wheel  into  the  sides  of  the  dies  at 
the  proper  place  and  time  to  make  the  nail-holes,  as  has 
been  explained. 

The  machine  shown  in  Figs.  144  to  147  is  especially  de¬ 
signed  for  the  formation  of  roofing  tile  from  plastic  clay; 
but  it  may  be  applied  to  the  formation  of  any  pressed 
article  capable  of  being  shaped  between  upper  and  under 
dies. 

The  main  features  of  the  invention  consist  of  a  series  of 
similar  lower  dies  attached  to  a  revolving  horizontal  table, 
and  brought  successively  beneath  the  upper  dies,  which 
latter  consist  of  two  parts,  viz.,  an  outer  shell,  which  forms 
the  edge  of  the  tile,  and  an  upper  die,  sliding  within 
the  shell,  and  which  forms  the  upper  surface  of  the  tile, 
each  attached  to  suitable  slides,  and  adapted  to  move  inde¬ 
pendently  with  a  vertical  reciprocating  motion.  In  com¬ 
bination  with  these  elements,  and  moved  by  the  same 
machinery,  is  also  an  automatic  feeding  apparatus. 

Figs.  144,  145,  and  146  represent,  respectively,  a  side 
elevation,  a  front  elevation,  and  a  plan  of  the  tile-machine ; 
and  Fig.  147  a  perspective  view  of  the  dies  and  shell  on  an 
enlarged  scale. 

The  main  part  of  the  machine  is  attached  to  and  sup- 


350 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


ported  by  the  frame  A,  which  stands  upon  the  legs  B  B. 
Journaled  in  the  upper  part  of  the  frame  is  the  shaft  C, 
turned  by  the  pulley  D.  On  the  front  of  this  frame  A  are 


cast  or  attached  suitable  guides  e  e,  within  which  moves  the 
slide  E,  carrying  on  its  lower  end  the  upper  die  F,  and 
moved  with  a  vertical  reciprocating  motion  by  the  cam  G. 
Upon  the  outside  of  the  guides  e  e  is  fitted  another  slide  i/, 
also  having  a  vertical  reciprocating  motion,  moved  by  the 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


351 


cam  /,  and  carrying  the  shell  J.  The  lower  dies  K  K  are 
attached  to  the  platform  Z,  which  is  keyed  to  and  turned 
by  the  shaft  M.  The  platform  Z  rests  upon  an  annular  bed 
N,  attached  to  and  supported  by  the  frame  A,  and  the  upper 
surface  thereof,  being  planed  smoothly,  .affords  a  sliding- 
seat,  upon  which  the  platform  Z  revolves. 

In  practice,  it  will  be  found  convenient  to  have  both  the 
annular  bed  N  and  lower  die  F  cast  hollow,  and  charged 
with  steam,  when  in  use,  to  facilitate  the  separation  of  the 
dies  from  the  tile  after  the  latter  is  pressed.  Upon  the  shaft 
C  is  an  eccentric-cam  0 ,  connected  to  a  crank  on  one  end 
of  the  shaft  Q  by  the  rod  P ;  and  upon  the  opposite  end  of 
the  shaft  Q  is  a  crank-arm  S,  which  is  connected  by  a  rod 
s,  to,  and  moves  a  loose  collar  T,  on  the  shaft  M. 

This  collar  T  carries  a  pawl  t,  which  engages  the  ratchet 
U  on  the  shaft  M,  and  thereby  the  cam  0  causes,  at  each 
return  stroke  of  the  upper  die  F  and  shell  J \  a  partial  revo¬ 
lution  of  the  platform  Z,  sufficient  to  bring  one  of  the  dies 
K ,  in  position  beneath  the  upper  die  and  shell. 

In  operation,  one  of  the  lower  dies  K  being  in  position 
beneath  the  upper  die,  with  a  portion  of  clay  thereon,  by 
the  action  of  the  cams  I  and  6r,  the  shell  J  first  descends 
and  surrounds  the  die  K,  to  which  it  is  accurately  fitted. 
The  upper  die  then  descends  within  the  shell  and  presses 
the  clay  into  the  desired  shape,  all  excess  of  clay  escaping 
through  the  holes  i  i  in  the  ends  of  the  shell  J.  The  upper 
die  still  remaining  on  the  clay,  the  shell  J  first  ascends ;  the 
upper  die  F  then  ascends ;  a  partial  revolution  of  the  plat¬ 
form  then  ensues,  and  the  operation  is  repeated. 


352 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


Especial  attention  is  called  to  the  arrangement  of  the 
lower  die,  shell,  and  upper  die,  and  the  relative  motion  of 
the  latter  two  at  the  time  of  forming  the  tile.  The  upper 
die  at  no  time  entirely  leaves  the  interior  of  the  shell  J. 
When  the  shell  J  descends  upon  the  die  K  the  three  parts 
form  a  closed  mould,  with  the  unpressed  clay  therein. 

By  causing  the  shell  J  to  rise  first,  it  cuts  off  the  two 
streams  of  surplus  clay  at  the  holes  i  i,  leaves  the  edges  of 
the  tile  smooth  and  clean  cut,  and  permits  the  upper  die  to 
ascend  without  tearing  the  green  tile,  which  could  not  be 
done  if  the  shell  J  remained  down. 

In  practice  it  is  found  that,  with  every  precaution  to  pre¬ 
vent  it,  there  are  always  incorporated  in  the  pressed  tile  par¬ 
ticles  of  compressed  air,  which,  by  its  expansive  force,  would, 
if  the  die  F  remained  at  its  extreme  pressure  when  the  shell 
J  was  removed,  force  the  clay  out  laterally  between  the  upper 
and  lower  dies,  thereby  destroying  the  line  and  smoothness 
of  the  edges  of  the  tile.  This  is  avoided  by  using  an  eccen¬ 
tric-cam  G ,  to  operate  the  upper  die,  whereby  the  upper  die 
begins  slowly  to  ascend  the  instant  after  its  extreme  pres¬ 
sure,  thereby  permitting  the  clay  to  expand  upward  by  the 
time  the  shell  ascends  above  it. 

Nail-holes  are  made  in  the  tile  as  follows  :  Upon  the  shell 
J  are  two  standards  V  V,  the  upper  angle  whereof  is  so  high 
as  not  to  interfere  with  the  greatest  separation  of  the  upper 
die  and  shell.  Projecting  downward  from  the  top  of  these 
are  pins  c  c,  which  pass  through  holes  in  the  upper  die,  and 
of  such  length  that  their  lower  ends  shall  rest  against  the 
face  of  the  lower  die  K  when  the  shell  J  is  at  its  extreme 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES.  353 

downward  stroke.  Their  operation  will  be  readily  under¬ 
stood  from  the  foregoing  description  of  the  press  as  they 
follow  the  motion  of  the  shell  J.  • 

The  feeding  device  consists  of  a  hollow,  open  cylinder  W, 
supported  over  one  of  the  lower  dies  when  the  latter  is  at 
rest,  as  shown. 

Across  the  bottom  of  this  cylinder  slides  a  plate  X,  sup¬ 
ported  by  an  arm  F,  which  swings  horizontally  on  the  shaft 
M.  In  this  plate  is  a  depression  (Z,  as  large  as  the  interior 
circumference  of  the  cylinder  IF,  the  side  of  said  depression 
toward  the  centre  of  the  plate  being  open,  and  the  edge  of 
the  plate  at  that  opening  sharpened  to  form  a  knife.  This 
plate  is  caused  to  oscillate  across  the  lower  end  of  the  cylin¬ 
der  W,  by  a  pittman  attached  to  the  crank-arm  S. 

In  operation,  a  roll  of  tempered  clay  is  placed  in  said 
cylinder.  By  the  action  of  the  arm  S,  in  revolving  the 
platform  L,  the  depression  in  the  plate  X  is  brought  be¬ 
neath  the  cylinder,  and  into  this  the  roll  of  clay  settles, 
when,  by  the  return  of  the  plate,  a  slice  of  clay  is  cut  off, 
and  falls  on  the  die  below. 

Fig.  148  shows  the  common  form  of  tile  barrows,  which 


Fig.  148. 


23 


354  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

are  similar  to  the  brick  barrows,  with  the  exceptions  that 
they  are  wider  at  the  front,  the  back  or  “  dash”  is  higher, 
and  the  wheel  is  covered.  Fig.  149  shows  the  form  of  a 

Fig.  149. 

■  I 


tile  truck  designed  to  carry  tiles  from  the  machine  to  the 
drying  sheds;  the  usual  size  of  the  platform  is  28x72 
inches,  and  being  mounted  on  two  wheels  is  not  easily  upset. 

The  price  of  the  tile  barrow  is  $6.25,  and  that  of  the 
truck  $10,  and  they  are  manufactured  by  D.  J.  C.  Arnold, 
New  London,  O. 

Section  III.  The  Manufacture  of  Drain  Pipes. 

Drain  tiles  are  either  moulded  flat  and  bent  around  a 
former  to  the  proper  shape,  or  are  made  at  once  of  a  curved 
form  by  pressing  the  clay  in  one  mechanical  operation 
through  a  die  of  the  proper  form.  The  latter  plan  is  the  one 
usually  employed,  and  pipes  of  all  the  usual  sizes  can  be  so 
produced. 

In  Staffordshire,  England,  pipe  drain  tiles  were,  and  are 
now  in  some  few  cases,  made  by  hand  in  the  following 
manner:  The  clay  having  been  first  thoroughly  tempered  is 
moulded  to  the  required  length  and  thickness,  and  then 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


355 


wrapped  about  a  drum,  the  meeting  edges  of  tbe  clay  care¬ 
fully  closed  together  by  hand,  the  drum  or  mandril  revolved 
quite  rapidly,  during  which  time  the  pipe  tile  is  shaped  by 
the  operator’s  wet  hand,  assisted  in  some  cases  by  a  flat 
curved  wooden  tool. 

Pipe  tiles,  whether  cylindrical,  tapered,  or  egg-shaped, 
being  produced  in  this  manner,  the  diameter  varies  from 
three  to  eighteen  inches. 

The  Ainslie  machine,  with  many  improvements,  is  now 
largely  employed  for  making  small  tubular  drain  tiles,  two 
pipes  of  1 J  or  2  inches  diameter  being  produced  at  the  same 

time. 

The  tempered  clay  is  forced  through  two  dies  to  shape 
the  tubes,  which  are  cut  into  lengths  by  wires  affixed  to 
the  machine.  When  partially  dry  they  are  smoothed  slightly 
and  rolled  straight  by  hand  upon  a  flat  surface,  and  then  set 
in  racks  to  finish  the  process  of  drying. 

The  hollow  fire-proof  tiles  described  in  Chapter  VI.  are 
formed  by  compressing  the  clay  through  dies,  and  the 
hollow  bricks,  so  largely  employed  for  building  purposes  in 
many  portions  of  Europe,  are  also  usually  formed  in  this 
manner. 

The  idea  of  tubular  tiles  and  bricks  is  by  no  means  a  new 
one,  for  such  articles  were  very  largely  employed  by  the 
Romans  in  vaultings  where  lightness  of  construction  was 
required.  Bricks  of  this  character  are  now  in  almost  com¬ 
mon  use  in  this  country  and  in  England  for  many  classes  of 
buildings. 

The  subject  of  the  proper  manner  of  drainage  for  agricul- 


356  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

tural  lands  has  received  much  more  attention  during  the 
past  quarter  of  a  century  than  it  received  before  that  time. 
Captain  Walter  Blyth  in  1652  directed  the  attention  of  the 
English  public  to  the  injurious  effects  of  water  retained  in 
cultivated  lands. 

He  condemned  the  shallow  open  ditches  then  in  use, 
and  recommended  straight  trenches  reaching  below  the 
“cold,  spewing,  moyst  water,”  which  he  said  was  the  cause 
of  the  “  corruption  that  feeds  and  nurisheth  the  rush  or 
flagg.”  But  no  attention  was  paid  to  this  good  advice. 

More  than  a  century  later,  in  1764,  a  Warwickshire  far¬ 
mer  conceived  the  idea  of  reaching  and  drawing  off  the 
water  from  the  subterranean  sources  by  tapping  with  an 
auger  the  stratum  that  confined  it,  and  afterwards  draining 
it  into  one  deep  channel. 

This  system  came  into  extensive  practice  in  England  as 
well  as  in  Scotland,  and  its  great  imperfections  were  not 
fully  appreciated  until  the  introduction  of  the  system  of 
James  Smith,  of  Dean  ton,  in  1823. 

This  was  contrived  with  reference  to  the  removal  of  the 
surface  water  as  well  as  that  beneath  the  soil.  A  series  of 
parallel  drains  was  sunk  in  the  direction  of  the  most  rapid 
descent,  which  drains  were  partially  filled  with  stones  small 
enough  to  pass  through  a  three -inch  ring  and  then  covered 
over  with  soil.  At  the  bottom  a  main  drain  was  constructed 
generally  of  stonework  or  with  tiles. 

The  system  grew  in  spite  of  great  opposition,  and  finally 
came  to  be  regarded  as  the  only  complete  system  applicable 
to  all  cases.  .  . 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


357 


The  drains  at  last  came  to  be  made  chiefly  of  tiles,  for  the 
manufacture  of  which  the  first  machine  was  invented  by  the 
Marquis  of  Tweeddale. 

The  practice  has  been  successfully  introduced  into  the 
United  States  and  other  countries,  and  drain  pipes  are  a 
considerable  branch  of  manufacture  in  many  portions  of  the  t 

world. 

Several  kinds  of  tiles  are  made  for  agricultural  under¬ 
ground  drains,  each  being  suitable  under  certain  circum¬ 
stances;  they  are  from  2  to  10  inches  in  diameter,  and  from 
1  to  2  feet  in  length. 

The  styles  usually  employed  are  termed  the  pipe  tile, 
which  is  circular,  the  sole  tile,  which  is  like  the  letter  D  laid 
flat,  and  the  horseshoe  tile,  which  is  semicircular  and  open 
at  the  bottom.  Any  variety  may  be  large  or  small. 

They  can  be  made  of  about  the  same  kind  of  sandy  clay 
as  bricks,  and  are  burned  sufficiently  to  include  as  much 
porosity  and  toughness  as  possible. 

There  is  no  reason  why  tiles  of  this  kind  cannot  be  pro¬ 
duced  cheaply  in  almost  any  neighborhood. 

The  great  necessity  of  underground  channels  for  carrying 
off  the  surface  waters,  and  the  liquid  refuse  matter  from 
houses  in  thickly  populated  places,  for  comfort  and  health, 
was  well  understood  by  the  ancient  Romans,  who  had  a 
regular  system  of  drainage,  which  included  not  only  the 
pestilential  marshes  about  the  city,  but  by  their  system  of 
drainage  impurities  were  conveyed  from  the  houses  into  the 
main  conduits  through  burned  clay  and  other  tubes. 

So  complete  was  this  system  that  Pliny  called  it  urbs  pen- 
silis,  a  city  upon  arches. 


358  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

The  ancient  Chaldean  tomb  mounds  possess  great  interest 
on  account  of  their  system  of  drainage.  Long  shafts  of 
baked  clay  extend  from  the  surface  of  the  mound  to  its  base 
composed  of  a  succession  of  rings  two  feet  in  diameter  and 
about  one  and  one-half  feet  in  width,  joined  together  by 
»  thin  layers  of  bitumen. 

In  America,  sewer  draining  has  an  ancient  history  also; 
the  works  of  the  mound  builders  prove  them  to  have  been 
experts  in  sewer  construction,  as  has  been  exhibited  at  vari¬ 
ous  places  between  the  Northwest  and  Central  America. 

In  times  just  past  the  manner  of  draining  populated 
dwellings  and  neighborhood  has  not  received  much  if  any 
intelligent  thought.  But  now  all  over  the  civilized  world 
the  matter  is  receiving  great  attention,  and  in  many  of  the 
large  cities  of  this  country  the  size,  kind,  and  manner  of  lay¬ 
ing  drains  from  dwellings  are  prescribed  by  law. 

In  the  District  of  Columbia  a  government  inspector  must 
see  the  sewer  pipe  properly  joined  and  bedded  on  concrete 
before  the  trench  in  which  it  is  placed  is  allowed  to  be 
closed,  a  heavy  penalty  being  exacted  for  the  violation  of 
any  of  the  laws  on  this  subject. 

The  drain  pipe  for  sewerage  purposes  now  employed  in 
this  country  and  in  Europe  is  a  glazed  terra-cotta  or  earth¬ 
enware  pipe ;  it  is  of  various  shapes,  but  the  circular  form  is 
the  one  in  most  general  use. 

It  is  made  in  sections,  called  lengths,  and  the  diameter  is 
from  three  inches  to  three  feet,  which  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  drainage  it  is  to  perform. 

The  clay  from  which  these  pipes  are  made  is  terra-cotta, 
or  a  grade  of  fire-clay. 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


359 


The  same  care  has  to  be  exercised  in  the  selection  and 
preparation  of  this  clay  as  has  been  described  for  fire-bricks, 
but  for  terra-cotta  or  earthenware  pipes  the  material  should 
be  more  plastic,  so  as  to  form  a  close  homogeneous  body 
similar  to  that  for  architectural  terra-cotta. 

The  clay  should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  passed  through 
iron  rollers  (good  ones  are  shown  in  Chapter  VI.),  and  faith¬ 
fully  tempered.  In  most  of  the  machines  for  moulding  this 
kind  of  ware,  now  in  use,  the  tempering  machinery  is  con¬ 
nected  and  forms  part ;  but  in  others  a  quantity  of  clay  is 
placed  in  a  cylinder,  which  is  refilled  as  it  becomes  ex¬ 
hausted. 

The  ware  is  taken  carefully  from  the  tile  press,  dried, 
and  burned  either  in  the  oven  used  for  plain  tiles,  or  in  the 
kiln  as  for  pantiles,  both  of  which  have  been  described  in 
Section  2  of  this  chapter. 

The  usual  glaze  given  to  the  ware  is  what  is  termed  a 
salt  glaze,  which  is  applied  at  the  final  stage  of  burning, 
just  before  the  oven  or  the  kiln  is  closed,  when  the  ware  has 
reached  about  its  highest  temperature  in  the  kiln. 

The  volatilized  salt  is  quickly  decomposed,  the  steam  and 
smoke  separating  it  into  hydrochloric  acid  and  soda,  and 
forming  a  veneering  on  the  surface  of  the  ware  by  uniting 
with  the  silica  of  the  clay. 

The  manner  of  applying  this  glaze,  as  well  as  others,  is 
fully  described  at  page  97. 

Sometimes  the  lengths  of  pipes  are  made  with  a  project¬ 
ing  flange  or  socket  on  the  one  end,  and  at  other  times  the 
pipe  is  plain,  the  connection  being  made  with  rings,  which 


360 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


are  made  separate,  and  are  called  collars.  The  latter  man¬ 
ner  is  the  usual  one  with  pipes  exceeding  twelve  inches  in 
diameter. 

The  larger  sewer  pipes  are  sometimes  made  so  as  to  allow 
smaller-sized  pipes  to  enter  them  at  an  angle.  S  traps,  Y 
branches,  T  pieces,  X  and  U  pieces,  elbows,  etc.,  are  made 
for  all  the  different  sizes  of  pipes;  they  are  separately 
moulded  and  are  somewhat  more  expensive  in  proportion 
than  the  lengths  of  pipe. 

As  in  brick-making,  so  in  tile  pipe  making,  there  are  a 
very  large  number  of  machines  intended  to  economically 
shape  all  the  different  styles  of  sewer  pipe,  as  well  as  others 
to  handle  it  as  the  pipe  comes  from  the  dies,  and  others  still 
to  cut  it  into  rings,  etc.  Some  of  these  contrivances  work 
very  effectively  and  economically,  and  others  are  crude, 
clumsy,  and  generally  inefficient. 

Fig.  150  shows  the  well-known  Tiffany  Centennial  ma¬ 
chine  arranged  to  make  twelve-inch  tile,  with  specimens  of 
its  work  ranging  in  size  from  2  to  18  inches  in  diameter. 

With  good  clay  for  the  purpose,  it  makes  eighteen-inch 
tile,  and  with  ordinary  clay  mould  twelve-inch  pipes  contin¬ 
uously  and  very  rapidly.  It  possesses  very  desirable  fea¬ 
tures  as  a  tile  machine,  besides  an  adaptation  to  many  other 
varieties  of  work. 

This  machine  is  driven  by  a  six-inch  belt,  and  has  tight 
and  loose  pulleys,  6  x  24,  which  should  have  a  motion  of 
from  200  to  300  revolutions  per  minute. 

The  mill  shaft  has  a  cog-wheel,  4  inches  face  and  1^ 
pitch,  simply  to  do  the  grinding ;  for  the  moulding  is  done 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES 


361 


Fig.  150. 


Fig.  151. 


362 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


by  different  gearing  and  by  separate  shafts,  working  in  dif¬ 
ferent  bearings.  The  great  strain  which  would  otherwise 
he  wholly  on  the  mill-shaft  and  mill-wheel  is  distributed. 

The  moulding  is  done  by  a  propeller  on  a  2|  inch  shaft, 
passing  through  the  mill-shaft  and  running  at  a  higher  mo¬ 
tion  in  an  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  large  propeller 
on  the  mill-shaft. 

The  hopper  is  37  inches  high,  making  it  very  convenient 
for  shovelling  directly  into  the  mill,  or  to  carry  the  clay  into 
the  hopper  from  a  crusher. 

The  machine  occupies  a  space  of  30  inches  by  10  feet. 
The  knives  are  attached  independently  of  each  other,  and 
may  be  all  taken  off  through  the  hopper  and  door.  The 
propellers  are  accessible  and  are  readily  changed. 

Fig.  151  represents  the  machine  arranged  for  making 
two-inch  tiles;  it  has  at  times  been  maintained  that  more 
than  one  stream  of  tile  could  not  be  successfully  moulded 

»  | 

with  one  propeller ;  but  as  this  is  a  double  auger  mill  it  per¬ 
forms  that  difficult  operation  most  acceptably. 

The  cutting-off  table  used  with  this  machine  as  shown  in 
Fig.  152  is  operated  by  a  workman.  It  stands  on  four  rock- 
ers,  which  permit  it  to  be  moved  longitudinally  to  and  from 
the  machine,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  a  small  chain,  and 
is  moved  by  the  web  of  the  clay  to  the  length  of  the  chain, 
and  when  the  operator  wishes  to  cut  the  web,  he  forces  the 
table  back  toward  the  ffiachine;  then,  permitting  it  to  move 
with  the  web  of  the  clay,  he  swings  the  cutting  frame  to  the 
opposite  side  of  the  table,  the  strong  steel  wires  passing 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


363 


through  the  clay  and  cutting  eight  or  nine  bricks  or  the  tile, 
as  the  case  may  be. 

The  manufacture  of  the  smaller  and  larger  tile  on  the 
Centennial  has  made  necessary  an  improvement  in  the  ele¬ 
vating  devices,  the  use  of  hand-screws  being  too  slow  a 
process. 


Fig.  152. 


The  above  cut  shows  the  table  as  improved  for  tile-mak¬ 
ing,  and  it  is  so  clear  that  a  description  is  unnecessary. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  table  will  always  be  level,  and 
that  it  may  be  quickly  raised  or  lowered,  and  expeditiously 
fastened  at  any  point,  so  that  it  will  bear  up  any  weight  it 
has  to  maintain. 

The  Drake  pipe  machine  is  shown  in  detail  in  Figs.  153 
to  160,  and  in  addition  to  forming  drain  pipes  it  can  be  used 
for  moulding  hollow  bricks,  garden  borders,  etc. 


364 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


Figure  153  represents  a  longitudinal  elevation  with  the 
front  cut  away  ;  Fig.  154  an  end  elevation,  showing  the 
roller-rack  M;  Fig.  155,  the  horizontal  die-plate  i  and  ad¬ 
justable  core-pin  /,  pivoted  as  shown  at  r,  to  its  support-frame 
K,  a  section  thereof  being  shown  in  connection  with  attach¬ 
ment-box  X,  Fig.  153;  Figs.  156  and  157,  different  styles 
of  die-plates;  Figs.  158  and  159,  respectively,  sectional  and 


superficial  views  of  an  adjustable  core-pin  consisting  of  any 
number  of  parts,  as  p  p  p  ;  Fig.  160,  an  end  elevation,  in 
which  is  shown  another  style  of  core-pin  J"  J7',  the  separate 
parts  being  connected  by  wires  x  x.  Dividing  wire  v"  is 
also  shown. 

B  B'  are  the  covers  of  clay-boxes  G  G' ,  which  are  sym¬ 
metrical. 

The  shaft  G  is  journaled  as  shown  at  K  K',  and  is  pro¬ 
vided  with  driving  pulleys  a  b  c.  a  and  c  run  free  on  the 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES.  365 

axle  6r,  one  carrying  a  straight  and  the  other  a  crossed  belt, 
which  are  applied  alternately  to  the  rigid  pulley  b. 

F  is  the  pinion,  geared  with  the  wheel  E,  which  is  pro¬ 
vided  with  a  thread,  and  revolves  or  turns  upon  the  piston 
or  screw  D,  driving  it  longitudinally  back  and  forth  with  the 
plungers  W  W.  which  are  attached  to  either  end  of  D. 

Heretofore  the  piston  D,  or  “  plunger  shaft,”  as  it  is  some¬ 
times  called,  has  been  driven  back  and  forth  by  means  of 
bevel-gear  wheels,  requiring  to  accomplish  such  motion  five 
bevel-wheels  and  two  shafts  with  spur  and  pinion  wheels’ 

ff  are  knee-joints,  g  is  the  connecting-rod.  e  e'  are 
levers  attached  thereto,  as  shown.  When#  the  levers  are 
thrown  up,  as  shown,  the  pinion  is  raised,  and  thereby 
thrown  out  of  gear  with  wheel  E,  and  the  machine  stops. 
The  pinion  is  thrown  into  gear  by  moving  the  levers  either 
to  the  right  or  left.  In  large  machines  this  work  is  done 
mechanically. 

Clay  properly  tempered  is  thrown  alternately  into  the 
boxes  C  Cf,  and,  by  means  of  the  plungers  W  forced 
out  through  the  die-plates  h  h',  and  thereby  formed  into 
brick,  tile,  or  mouldings,  which  are  received  upon  a  roller- 
rack  M,  placed  at  either  end  of  the  machine,  and  by  means 
of  a  cutter  N,  provided  with  wires,  as  shown,  divided  into 
pieces  of  such  length  as  required. 

Prior  to  this  invention,  the  core-pin  and  die-plate  were 
cast  in  a  single  piece. 

The  two  may  be  made  separate,  as  shown  in  Fig.  155,  and 
when  so  constructed  the  core-pin  becomes  adjustable,  and  the 


366 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


size  and  shape  of  the  hollow  or  opening  in  the  brick,  tile, 
or  mouldings  may  be  varied  simply  by  changing  the  core¬ 
pin.  Whatever  may  be  the  style  of  core-pin,  whether  con¬ 
sisting  of  one  or  more  parts,  its  holder,  which  may  be  about 
one  inch  wide  and  twenty-two  inches  long  in  a  large 
machine,  is  bevelled  on  the  inner  side  and  left  flat  or  with  a 
plane  upper  surface,  so  that  the  clay  is  made  to  lap-weld 
after  it  passes  the  holder,  and  before  it  passes  the  core-pin, 
and  thus  the  brick  or  tile  is  prevented  from  cracking. 

The  attachment-box  L  may  be  used  in  moulding  large 
tile,  which  are  run  down  through  a  die-plate  placed  horizon¬ 
tally,  as  shown.  Tile  may,  however,  be  handled  with  much 
greater  facility  when  run  out  horizontally  upon  roller-racks. 
The  difficulty  heretofore  experienced  in  doing  this,  when  the 
tile  are  large,  is  that  when  fresh  moulded  they  are  liable  to 
collapse  or  fall  in,  when  placed  upon  their  sides ;  but  by  the 
use  of  the  core-pin  J"  J",  Fig.  160,  a  portion  of  the  clay  is- 
left  within  the  opening  and  serves  to  support  the  sides  of 
the  tile  until  they  are  partially  dried.  This  support  then  be¬ 
comes  loose  and  is  readily  removed.  The  wires  x  x  divide 
or  separate  this  support  or  core  as  it  passes  through  the  die 
from  the  sides  of  the  tile,  yet  leaving  it  in  place,  so  that  it 
serves  to  support  the  tile  until  they  are  sufficiently  hardened 
to  uphold  their  own  weight,  as  before  described. 

The  parts  J"  J"  may  be  increased  in  number  and  con¬ 
nected  by  wires,  as  x  x ,  substantially  as  shown,  and 
thereby  two  or  more  supports  may  be  left  within  the  open¬ 
ing.  During  this  process  of  moulding  large  tile  the  dividing- 
wire  v"  is  not  used.  It  is  designed  for  dividing  a  large  tile, 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


367 


and  making  thereof  two  smaller  ones,  when  placed  as  shown 
in  Fig.  160,  and  in  this  latter  case  the  wires  x  x  are  re¬ 
moved  and  the  tile  comes  from  the  machine  with  two  open¬ 
ings,  the  portion  between  the  parts  J1'  J"  of  the  core-pin 
being  left  solid ;  but  on  coming  against  the  wire  v"  the  tile 
is  divided  into  two  parts,  either  one  of  which  is  in  itself  a 
complete  tile. 

By  increasing  the  number  of  parts  J "  J"  of  the  core-pin, 
and  using  the  necessary  number  of  dividing  wires  v",  the 
number  of  tile  or  mouldings  that  may  be  run  out  together 
may  be  multiplied. 

The  Potts  machine,  shown  in  detail  in  Figs.  161  to  170, 
is  for  the  manufacture  of  tiles  for  draining  and  analogous 
purposes,  it  being  the  object  of  the  invention  to  produce  a 
mechanism  for  this  purpose  which  shall  be  more  rapid  and 
reliable  in  its  operation,  capable  of  producing  a  better  arti¬ 
cle,  and  of  being  operated  with  a  less  expenditure  of  power 
than  those  heretofore  in  use. 

Figure  161  is  a  longitudinal  vertical  section  of  a  mecha¬ 
nism  embodying  the  invention.  Fig.  162  is  an  end  elevation 
of  the  same.  Fig.  163  is  an  end  view  of  the  die-chamber, 
showing  the  interior  and  exterior  dies  and  the  manner  of 
adjusting  and  holding  the  same  in  position.  Fig.  164  is  a 
horizontal  section  taken  upon  the  line  x  x  of  Fig.  161. 
Fig.  165  is  a  side  elevation  of  the  driving-cylinder,  showing 
also  the  reversing  mechanism.  Fig.  166  is  an  enlarged  view 
of  a  portion  of  Fig.  165.  Figs.  167  and  168  are  sectional 
details  of  the  valve  for  controlling  the  feed  of  oil  to  the 
driving-cylinder.  Fig.  169  is  an  inside  view  of  the  interior 


368 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


and  exterior  dies,  showing  the  interior  die  supported  in  a 
different  manner;  and  Fig.  170  is  a  perspective  view  of  a 
section  of  the  tile  produced. 


369 


\ 

ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 

The  .cylindrical  tempering-hopper  A  is  mounted  in  the 
usual  manner  above  the  die  chamber  B ,  and  is  provided  at 
a  point  near  its  top  with  a  feeding  opening  1,  for  the  recep¬ 
tion  of  the  clay.  This  hopper  is  also  provided  with  a  verti¬ 
cal  shaft  2,  carrying  the  tempering-blades  3,  the  shaft  and 
blades  being  connected  by  suitable  gears,  as  4  5,  with  a  shaft 
carrying  the  driving  pulley  6. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  tempering-hopper  the  die-chamber 
is  provided  with  an  opening  7,  through  which  the  clay  falls 
after  it  is  properly  tempered  and  in  condition  to  be  pressed 
through  the  opening  formed  by  the  dies. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  bearing  8,  through  which  the 
tempering-blade  shaft  passes  at  the  top  of  the  tempering- 
hopper,  is  of  sufficient  length  to  entirely  support  the  shaft, 
so  that  a  bearing  at  its  bottom  is  dispensed  with  by  reason 
of  which  the  opening  7  is  left  entirely  unobstructed  and  a 
free  passage  afforded  for  the  clay  from  the  hopper  to  the  die- 
chamber. 

The  die-chamber  B  is  shown,  in  the  present  case,  as 
square  in  cross-section,  although  it  may  be  of  polygonal  or 
of  cylindrical  form,  and  is  of  suitable  diameter  and  length 
to  receive  the  desired  quantity  of  clay  and  to  permit  the 
plunger  to  have  the  proper  length  of  stroke.  The  forward 
end  of  the  die-chamber  is  provided  with  the  various  parts 
constituting  the  die,  through  which  the  clay  is  pressed  to 
give  the  proper  shape  to  the  tile.  These  parts  consist  of  an 
interior  die,  an  exterior  die,  and  an  adjustable  supporting- 
frame  carrying  the  latter.  The  interior  die  10,  around 
which  the  tile  is  formed,  and  which  serves  to  determine  its 


24 


370 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


interior  configuration,  is  removably  supported  upon  an  arm 
or  bracket  11,  which  may  be  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  161, 
and  secured  by  bolts  12  to  one  side  of  the  interior  of  the 
die-chamber.  This  support  may,  however,  extend  across 
and  be  secured  to  both  sides  of  the  chamber,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  169,  and  by  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  161.  The  exterior  die 
13,  through  which  the  tile  passes,  and  which  serves  to  deter¬ 
mine  its  exterior  configuration,  is  seated  in  an  opening  in 
the  supporting-frame  or  die-carrier  14,  it  being  secured  to 
said  frame  by  a  series  of  buttons  or  catches  15,  as  clearly 
shown  in  Fig.  163.  The  carrier  or  frame  14,  supporting 
the  exterior  die,  is  adjustably  secured  to  the  forward  end  of 
the  die-chamber  by  means  of  the  series  of  bolts  16,  which 
pass  through  flanges  upon  the  sides  of  the  chamber  and 
enlarged  openings  17  in  the  frame,  as  shown  in  Fig.  161. 

To  aid  in  properly  adjusting  the  frame  14  and  securing  it 
in  any  adjusted  position,  the  end  of  the  die-chamber  is  pro¬ 
vided  with  the  series  of  projecting  ears  18,  through  which 
pass  set-screws  19,  the  inner  ends  of  which  abut  against  the 
frame  and  support  it  upon  all  sides.  By  means  of  these  de¬ 
vices  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  exterior  die  can  be  set 
in  any  desired  relation  to  the  interior  die,  so  as  to  produce 
tile  of  uniform  thickness  upon  all  sides,  or  of  uneven  thick¬ 
ness,  which  latter  is  often  desirable.  It  will  also  be  seen 
that  by  changing  the  interior  or  exterior  die,  or  both,  which 
can  readily  be  done,  thicker  or  thinner  or  larger  or  smaller 
tile  can  be  produced  at  pleasure,  and  also  that  dies  of  differ¬ 
ent  forms  may  be  substituted,  so  as  to  vary  the  exterior  or 
interior  configuration  of  the  tile,  or  both. 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


371 


The  reciprocating  plunger  with  which  the  die-chamber  is 
provided,  and  by  which  the  clay  delivered  from  the  temper¬ 
ing-hopper  is  pressed  through  the  opening  in  the  die,  con¬ 
sists  essentially  of  a  pair  of  heads  20  21,  connected  by  a 
yoke  22,  and  a  top  plate  23.  The  heads  20  21  fill  the  en¬ 
tire  area  of  the  chamber,  substantially  like  pistons,  and  the 
head  20  is  provided  with  an  ordinary  flap  or  other  valve  24, 
so  arranged  that,  as  the  plunger  moves  backward,  air  will 
be  allowed  to  enter  the  die-chamber  and  prevent  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  a  vacuum  in  front  of  the  plunger.  The  plate  23, 
which  connects  the  front  and  rear  heads  of  the  plunger,  ex¬ 
tends  the  entire  width  of  the  die-chamber,  or  is  at  least  of 
sufficient  width  to  cover  the  opening  7,  and  prevent  the  clay 
from  falling  in  the  rear  of  the  head  20  when  the  plunger  is 
at  the  forward  end  of  its  travel.  This  plate  is  also  made 
slightly  adjustable  by  means  of  set-screws  25,  so  that  it  can 
be  moved  outward  to  compensate  for  wear. 

The  bottom  of  the  die-chamber  is  provided  with  an  open- 
1  ing  26,  located  as  shown  in  Figs.  161  and.  164,  through 
which  the  interior  of  the  chamber  can  be  reached  for  the 
adjustment  of  the  parts. 

The  plunger  just  described  is  operated  to  press  the  clay 
through  the  opening  in  the  die  by  means  of  hydraulic  or 
other  analogous  pressure  applied  from  the  cylinder  28  upon 
the  rear  end  of  the  die-chamber  through  the  piston  29  and 
piston-rod  30,  the  latter  of  which  passes  through  the  head 
21,  and  is  secured  to  the  yoke  22,  as  clearly  shown  in  Figs. 
161  and  164. 

The  fluid  (preferably  oil  or  some  other  substance  which 


372  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

is  nearly  or  quite  non-compressible),  which  drives  the  piston 
29,  is  forced  into  the  cylinder  28  through  a  main  pipe,  as  31, 
connected  with  any  appropriate  form  of  pumping  apparatus 
operated  either  from  some  moving  part  of  the  machine  or 
independently  thereof,  as  may  be  desired.  In  the  present 
case  this  pumping  apparatus  is  shown  as  consisting  of  a 
double  force-pump  32,  the  pistons  33  whereof  are  connected 
with  and  driven  by  excentrics  34  upon  the  driving-shaft  of 
the  machine.  These  pumps  are  provided  with  valves,  so  ar¬ 
ranged  in  the  ordinary  manner  that  the  motion  of  their  pis¬ 
tons  draws  the  oil  or  other  fluid  from  the  tank  35,  through 
pipe  36  and  chamber  37,  into  the  pumps,  and  ejects  the 
same  through  chamber  38  and  pipe  27  into  the  pipe  31. 
One  end  of  the  main  pipe  31  enters  and  terminates  near  the 
top  of  the  tank  35,  as  shown  in  Fig.  161,  at  which  point  it 
is  provided  with  a  safety-valve  39,  controlled  by  a  spring 
or  other  device  which  can  be  adjusted,  so  that  in  case  the 
plunger  meets  with  any  undue  resistance,  as  would  happen 
if  a  stone  or  other  solid  substance  should  pass  into  the  die- 
cliamber,  a  relief  may  be  afforded  to  the  pressure  of  the  fluid 
in  the  cylinder  28,  and  all  danger  of  breaking  the  machine 

v~- 

be  avoided.  This  pipe  also  communicates  with  an  air-cham¬ 
ber  40,  in  which  the  elasticity  of  the  confined  air  serves  to 
make  the  movements  of  the  piston  regular  and  uniform. 
The  opposite  end  of  the  pipe  31  enters  the  valve-chamber 
41,  which  contains  an  oscillating  valve  42,  which  operates 
to  direct  the  oil  or  other  fluid  alternately  through  the  pipes 
43  44  and  into  the  cylinder  28  upon  the  opposite  sides  of 
the  piston  29. 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


373 


Referring  particularly  to  Figs.  167  and  168,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  valve-chamber  41  consists  of  a  cylindrical 
casing  provided  with  ports  45  46  47,  communicating  re¬ 
spectively  with  pipes  31  43  44,  and  with  a  port  48,  com¬ 
municating  with  the  exhaust-pipe  49,  through  which  the 
motor-fluid  is  returned  to  the  tank  35.  The  valve  42  con¬ 
sists  of  a  slightly  tapering  cylindrical  plug  provided  with 
parallel  passages  50  51,  which  may  be  made  to  communi¬ 
cate  with  ports  46  47  and  branch  passages  52  53,  which 
open  into  ports  45  48.  To  give  greater  strength  to  the  plug 
the  passages  50  51  52  53  are  provided  with  a  partition-wall 
68,  as  shown  in  Fig.  167.  This  plug  is  provided  with  a 
stem  54,  extending  through  the  wall  of  the  valve-chamber, 
and  with  adjusting-screws  55  56,  located  as  shown,  by  which 
it  can  be  maintained  in  such  position  as  to  preserve  a  per¬ 
fectly  tight  joint  between  it  and  the  casing. 

The  stem  54  is  provided  with  an  arm  57  (see  Fig.  165), 
which  is  connected  by  a  link  58,  with  a  pivoted  lever  59, 
the  end  of  which  is  loosely  connected  to  a  collar  60,  which 
slides  freely  upon  the  valve-rod  61,  which  is  connected  to 
the  head  21  of  the  plunger.  The  rod  61  is  provided  with 
two  adjustable  collars  62  63,  which,  by  means  of  set-screws, 
can  be  secured  to  the  rod  in  any  desired  position,  and  is 
also  provided  between  said  collars  with  springs  64  65,  the 
purpose  of  which  will  hereinafter  appear.  The  end  of  the 
lever  59  extends  below  the  collar  60,  and  engages  with  the 
face  of  a  double-inclined  block  66,  which  slides  in  suitable 
ways  secured  to  the  side  of  the  cylinder  28,  and  is  pressed 
upward  against  the  end  of  said  lever  by  a  spring  67,  as 
shown  in  Figs.  165  and  166. 


374 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


The  operation  of  the  mechanism  just  described  is  as  fol¬ 
lows  :  The  clay,  being  introduced  through  the  opening  1 
into  the  tempering-hopper,  will  pass  gradually  downward  in 
the  hopper,  being  tempered  during  its  passage  by  the  blades 
3.  As  it  arrives  at  the  bottom  of  the  hopper  the  tempered 
clay  passes  through  the  opening  7  into  the  die-chamber  in 
front  of  the  plunger.  When  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the 
clay  has  thus  passed  into  the  die-chamber,  the  pumps  will 
be  started,  and  the  fluid,  forced  into  the  cylinder  28,  behind  j 
the  piston  29,  will  cause  the  plunger  to  advance,  thereby 
forcing  the  clay  through  the  die-opening  and  forming  the 
tile  as  shown  in  Fig.  165.  When  the  plunger  has  thus 
advanced  a  proper  distance  the  spring  65  will  come  into 
contact  with  the  collar  60,  and  said  spring  will  be  com¬ 
pressed  until  it  has  acquired  sufficient  tension  to  move  the 
lever  59  against  the  resistance  of  the  inclined  block  66.  As 
soon  as  the  lever  59  is  started  the  expansion  of  the  spring 
65  will  throw  its  end  quickly  over  the  apex  of  the  block  66, 
when  the  expansion  of  the  spring  67  will  at  once  raise  the 
block  to  its  normal  position.  This  movement  of  the  lever 
59  will,  through  link  58  and  arm  57,  turn  the  valve  42,  so 
as  to  permit  the  fluid  forced  into  the  pipe  31  to  pass  through 
port  45,  passages  52  50,  port  46,  and  pipe  43  into  the  cylin¬ 
der  in  front  of  the  piston  29,  to  retract  the  plunger.  At 
the  same  time  that  a  passage  is  thus  opened  for  the  admis¬ 
sion  of  the  fluid  to  the  cylinder  in  front  of  the  piston  a  pas¬ 
sage  will  be  opened  through  pipe  44,  port  48,  passages  53 
51,  port  47,  and  pipe  49,  which  will  permit  the  fluid  in  the 
rear  of  the  piston  to  pass  back  to  the  tank  35.  When  the 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


375 


piston  has  gained  the  rear  end  of  its  stroke,  the  spring  64 
will  come  into  contact  with  the  collar  60,  and  the  valve  will 
in  like  manner  be  moved  in  the  opposite  direction,  so  as  to 
admit  the  fluid  through  port  45,  passages  52  50,  port  47, 
and  pipe  44  to  the  cylinder  behind  the  piston,  thereby  caus¬ 
ing  the  plunger  to  again  advance,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  fluid  in  front  of  the  piston  will  be  allowed  to  escape 
through  pipe  43,  port  46,  passages  51  53,  and  port  48. 

By  reason  of  the  cylindrical  sleeve  69,  which  surrounds 
the  piston-rod  in  front  of  the  piston,  the  front  area  of  the 
piston  is  reduced  to  one-third  or  less  than  one-third  of  its 
rear  area,  from  which  it  results  that  the  piston  and  plunger 
are  retracted  very  much  more  rapidly  than  they  are  ad¬ 
vanced,  thus  effecting  a  great  increase  in  the  rapidity  of  the 
operation  of  the  machine. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  partition  70,  which  separates 
the  passages  50  51  in  the  valve,  is  slightly  less  in  thickness 
than  the  diameter  of  the  ports  46  47,  from  which  it  results 
that  in  reversing  the  piston  there  is  never  a  time  when  the 
passage  of  the  fluid  through  the  valve  is  entirely  arrested,  it 
being  allowed  to  enter  the  passage  50  before  it  is  entirely 
shut  off  from  the  passage  51,  and  vice  versa.  This  feature 
relieves  the  strain  to  which  the  valve  would  be  subjected  by 
totally  arresting  the  flow  of  the  fluid. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  by  varying  the  positions  of  the 
collars  62  63,  the  length  of  the  stroke  of  the  piston  and 
plunger,  and  the  amount  of  clay  delivered  through  the  die 
can  be  regulated  at  pleasure. 

As  before  stated,  the  pump  32  may  be  of  any  approved 


376  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

construction,  and  may  be  operated  by  or  independently  of 
the  machine. 

Instead  of  a  double  pump,  as  shown,  a  single  pump  may 
be  used,  although  the  former  is  preferable,  as  it  gives  a  uni¬ 
form  movement  to  the  plunger. 

By  varying  the  quantity  of  fluid  fed  to  the  pump,  for 
which  purpose  the  pipe  36  is  provided  with  a  regulating- 
cock,  as  shown  in  Fig.  161,  or  pumps,  it  will  readily  be  seen 
that  the  speed  of  the  plunger  can  be  varied  at  pleasure. 
This  is  an  important  feature,  as  in  making  tile  of  large  size 
the  plunger  can  be  operated  successfully  at  a  much  greater 
speed  than  when  small-sized  tile  are  being  made,  and  also 
because  by  this  means  the  amount  of  tempering  to  which 
the  clay  is  subjected  can  be  easily  regulated. 

Fig.  171  shows  an  old  style  of  pipe  machine  much  in  use 
in  Europe  and  in  this  country  for  forming  large-sized  pipes. 

The  exterior  cylinder  contains  a  second  cylinder  which 

holds  a  given  quantity  of  clay.  By  the  rack  the  clay  is 

forced  by  the  piston  through  the  die  upon  a  balanced  table, 

which  is  forced  down,  and  when  the  proper  length  of  pipe 

is  formed,  the  belt  is  shifted,  and  the  machine  stops ;  the 

length  of  pipe  is  cut  off  by  the  wire  shown  under  the 

cylinder. 

■» 

The  pipe  is  removed,  the  table  raises,  and  the  machine  is 
again  set  in  motion,  and  the  operation  continued  as  before, 
and  when  all  the  clay  in  the  cylinder  has  been  used,  the 
rack  is  reversed,  the  plunger  drawn  entirely  out,  and  the 
cylinder,  which  moves  on  pivots,  is  tilted,  to  receive  another 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


377 


charge  of  clay,  then  restored  to  its  vertical  position  to  be 
again  quickly  emptied.  This  class  of  machines  is  as  clumsy 
as  it  is  unprofitable ;  they  cannot  be  run,  on  an  average, 


Fig.  m. 


for  more  than  one-quarter  of  the  day,  the  other  three-quar¬ 
ters  being  lost  in  the  stops  of  the  machine,  which  are  too 
long,  as  well  as  too  often,  owing  to  the  awkward  construc¬ 
tion  of  some  of  the  parts. 


378 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


Section  IV.  Machines  for  forming  Sockets  on  and  making 
Curved  Earthenware  Pipes. 

The  machine  shown  in  Figs.  172  to  178,  and  that  shown 
in  Figs.  179  to  181  are  the  inventions  of  Mr.  Horace  B.  Camp. 

The  first  invention  shown  in  Figs.  172  to  178  has  relation 
to  that  class  of  machinery  for  making  pipes  of  clay  or  other 
plastic  material  by  pressing  it  through  an  annular  orifice 
between  an  outside  die  and  an  inside  core,  and  its  object  is 
to  form  sockets  on  the  end  of  sections  of  such  pipe  when  the 
pipe  is  caused  to  curve  as  it  issues  from  the  orifice. 

In  order  to  present  the  distinctive  features  of  the  invention, 
it  is  proper  to  state  that  ordinarily  to  form  such  sockets  on 
sections  of  straight  pipe,  the  outer  die  is  prolonged  beyond 
the  point  of  discharge  of  such  length  and  inside  shape  as  to 
form  the  outside  of  the  desired  socket.  When,  however,  the 
pipe  curves  as  it  issues  from  the  orifice,  this  device  is  impos¬ 
sible,  as  the  issuing  pipe  encounters  the  edge  of  this  socket-die 
and  is  destroyed.  To  obviate  this  difficulty,  Camp  constructs 
the  socket-die  separate  from  the  other  parts  of  the  machine, 
in  the  form  of  a  ring,  divided  into  two  parts,  so  as  to  permit 
of  its  being  removed :  and  the  first  part  of  this  invention 
relates  to  the  method  of  holding  this  severed  ring  firmly  in 
place  until  the  socket  is  formed,  which  consists  in  fitting  its 
upper  edge  into  a  groove  in  the  lower  face  of  the  outside  die, 
and  its  lower  edge  into  a  groove  in  a  flange  projecting  from 
the  base  of  the  die,  which  forms  the  inside  of  the  socket ; 
and  the  second  part  of  the  invention  relates  to  a  combina- 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIFES. 


379 


tion  of  arras  and  links  for  manipulating  the  parts  of  the 
ring. 

For  the  purposes  of  this  description,  we  adopt  the  follow¬ 
ing  nomenclature : — 

That  part  of  the  pipe-press  which  forms  the  outside  of  the 
annular  orifice  through  which  the  pipe  issues — the  outside 
die.  The  piece  suspended  centrally  within  this,  and  which 
forms  the  bore  of  the  pipe — the  core.  The  die  which  forms 
the  inside  of  the  socket — the  lower  die ;  and  the  severed 
ring  which  is  interposed  between  the  outside  die  and  the 
flange  of  the  lower  die,  and  forms  the  outside  of  the  socket 
— the  ring. 

Figure  172  is  a  sectional  view  of  a  portion  of  the  lower 
part  of  a  pipe-press,  wherein  A  is  the  outside  die,  and  B  the 
core ;  the  outside  die  A  having  a  groove  S  in  its  lower  face 
to  receive  the  upper  edge  of  the  ring. 

Fig.  173  is  a  central  section  of  the  ring  (7,  divided  in 
half  at  the  line  a  (a  plan  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  178), 
and  having  its  upper  edge  turned  to  accurately  fit  in  the 
groove  S,  in  the  outside  die  A,  and  its  lower  edge  fitted  in 
the  same  manner  for  the  groove  R  of  the  flange  of  the  lower 
die  D. 

Fig.  174  is  a  side  view  of  one  of  the  hooks  H. 

Fig.  176  is  a  plan  and  Fig.  175  a  section  at  the  line  x  x 
of  the  lower  die  D.  Upon  alternate  sides  of  the  flange  of 
this  die  are  two  lugs  d  d ,  which  lock  into  hooks  H  H 
attached  to  the  outside  die  A,  and  hold  the  several  parts 
together  while  the  socket  is  formed. 

In  operation  the  lower  die  D,  by  means  of  the  collar  E 


380 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


projecting  from  its  base,  rests  upon  a  following  rod  (not 
shown),  which  moves  in  the  line  of  the  axis  of  the  press. 
The  ring  C  is  then  placed  thereon,  with  its  lower  edge  fit¬ 
ting  into  the  groove  R.  The  whole  is  then  raised  to  the 
press,  the  upper  part  of  the  lower  die  D  joining,  and  form¬ 
ing  a  continuation  of  the  core  B ,  and  the  ring  G  entering 
into  the  groove  S.  The  lower  die  D  is  then  revolved  until 
the  lugs  d  d  lock  into  the  hooks  H  H ,  as  shown  in  Fig.  177, 
the  whole  forming  a  complete  mould  for  the  socket.  When 
the  socket  is  formed  the  lower  die  D  is  withdrawn,  and  the 
ring  C  separated  and  removed. 


To  facilitate  the  manipulation  of  the  ring  C  the  inventor 
attaches  to  the  segments  thereof  the  arms  L  L  (see  Figs. 
177  and  178),  hinged  upon  the  wrist  ^attached  to  the  bar 
P.  Upon  the  wrist  0,  journaled  in  the  bar  P,  are  fastened 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


381 


the  lever  G  and  link  if,  and  opposite  ends  of  the  link  M 
are  connected  with  the  arms  L  L'  by  the  links  N  N',  the 
whole  so  arranged  that  by  revolving  the  lever  G  the  arms 
L  L'  may  be  caused  to  diverge  or  approach  each  other,  carry¬ 
ing  the  segments  of  the  ring  C. 

The  simple  divided  ring  C,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
sockets  on  sections  of  straight  pipe,  is  not  new,  but  the 
method  of  holding  it  by  means  of  the  grooves  in  the  dies 
A  and  f>,  and  manipulating  it  by  means  of  the  arms  L  1! 
and  attachments,  Camp  believes  to  be  original  with  himself. 

Making  Curved  Earthenware  Pipes. 

The  invention  shown  in  Figs.  179  to  181  relates  to  the 
formation  of  curves,  elbows,  and  traps  in  that  class  of  sewer 
and  water  pipe  made  of  clay  or  similar  material  by  being- 
pressed,  while  in  a  soft  and  plastic  condition,  through  an 
annular  orifice  between  an  outside  die  and  an  inside  core  or 
mandrel,  and  subsequently  burned  and  vitrified,  but  it  may 
be  applied  to  any  pipe  made  in  the  same  manner. 

The  object  of  the  invention  is  to  rapidly  and  easily  form 
such  curves,  and  so  form  them  that  they  shall  be  of  even 
thickness  in  every  part. 

Figure  179  represents  a  central  vertical  section  of  a  por¬ 
tion  of  an  ordinary  cylinder  and  attachments  for  making 
pipe,  embodying  this  invention. 

To  the  cylinder  A,  from  which  the  clay  is  pressed  to  form 
the  pipe,  by  a  piston  (not  shown),  is  bolted  a  cylinder-head 
C,  made  converging  to  facilitate  the  descent  of  the  clay. 


382 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


To  the  head  C  is  bolted  the  outside  hollow  die  D ,  having 
an  inside  diameter  at  the  bottom  of  the  size  of  the  desired 
pipe,  and  within  which,  supported  centrally  by  means  of  the 

rod  F,  is  the  core  or  mandrel  M, 
having  an  outside  diameter  of  the 
size  of  the  inside  of  the  desired  pipe. 
Between  the  die  D  and  head  C  is 
a  chamber  or  recess,  in  which  is  fit¬ 
ted  a  plate  P,  Fig.  180,  free  to  slide 
longitudinally  in  one  direction  at 
right  angles  to  the  main  cylinder 
and  core,  and  moved  by  means  of  a 
lever  X,  which  said  lever  is  attached 
to  the  plate  P  by  the  bolt  Q,  and  is 
hinged  to  the  lugs  P  and  T  cast  or 
attached  to  the  head  C  and  die  D. 
respectively,  as  will  appear  from 
Fig.  181,  which  represents  a  trans¬ 
verse  section  of  Fig.  179  at  the 
bottom  of  the  plate  P,  looking  from 
below.  Through  the  plate  P  is  an 
orifice  of  the  shape,  and  approximately  of  the  size,  of  the 
pipe  to  be  made,  within  which  the  mandrel  is  suspended, 
and  having  the  edges  bevelled  from  the  upper  surface  out¬ 
ward.  When  the  plate  P  remains  so  that  the  core  M  is 
exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  orifice  therein,  the  clay  descends 
with  the  same  rapidity  on  all  sides  of  the  core,  and  is  dis¬ 
charged  in  a  continuous  straight  pipe.  By  sliding  the  plate 
to  one  side,  the  space  S  between  the  edge  of  the  orifice  in 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


383 


the  plate  P  and  the  mandrel  is  lessened  on  one  side,  and 
correspondingly  increased  on  the  other.  The  result  of  this 
is  that  the  clay  descends  and  escapes  more  rapidly  on  the 
opened  side  of  the  mandrel  than  on  the.  side  where  the  space 
S  is  contracted,  and  as  it  is  discharged  from  the  die  D,  it 
curves  toward  the  side  on  which  the  space  is  contracted.  By 
sliding  the  plate  to  the  other  side,  the  pipe  will  curve  in  an 
opposite  direction,  and  by  a  succession  of  movements  of  the 
plate,  any  desired  form  of  curve  or  trap  can  be  made.  The 
relative  positions  of  the  die  D  and  core  M  remain  at  all 
times  unchanged,  and  as  a  result  the  pipe  is  of  equal  thick¬ 
ness  on  all  sides. 

The  principle  of  curving  such  pipes,  by  allowing  the  clay 
to  discharge  more  freely  on  one  side  of  an  annular  orifice 
than  on  the  other  is  not  new,  as  the  inventor,  as  well  as 
others,  had  for  several  years  previous  to  this  invention  made 
single  curves  by  rigidly  setting  either  the  core  M  or  die  D  to 
one  side  of  their  common  centre,  so  as  to  be  eccentric  to  the 
other,  thereby  making  the  annular  orifice,  when  the  pipe  is 
discharged,  larger  on  one  side  than  on  the  other.  Nor  is  the 
idea  new  of  making  parts  of  a  pipe-machine  movable  at  the 
will  of  the  operator  while  the  pipe  is  issuing,  thereby  en¬ 
abling  him  to  make  reverse  or  other  compound  curves,  as 
several  devices  have  been  invented  and  patented  for  moving 
either  the  die  D  or  mandrel  M,  while  the  pipe  was  forming. 
But  all  these  devices  have  reference  to  a  change  in  the 
annular  opening  between  the  core  M  and  die  D  at  the  point 
of  discharge,  and  herein  they  differ  radically  from  this,  in 
that  the  pipe  is  of  uneven  thickness  on  different  sides. 


384 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


Dodd’s  Improved  Tile  Carrier  for  Horizontal  Tile  Machines. 

The  invention  is  shown  in  Figs.  182  to  184,  and  relates 
to  an  improvement  in  that  class  of  tile  machines  employed 
in  making  drain-tile,  in  which  the  tile  as  it  issues  from  the 
forming-dies  is  received  upon  an  endless  belt  or  carrier, 
where  the  tile  is  cut  to  proper  lengths,  the  object  being  to 
so  construct  the  carrier  that  tile  of  different  sizes  or  diameters 
may  be  carried  by  one  and  the  same  set  of  supporting-bars, 
instead  of  being  compelled  to  change  the  bars  for  others 
having  a  concavity  formed  to  suit  the  periphery  of  every 
different  size  of  tile  manufactured.  This  result  is  accom¬ 
plished  by  forming  the  concavity  in  the  carrier-bar  upon  as 
great  a  radius  as  that  of  the  largest  tile  to  be  made  upon 
the  machine,  and  then  bridging  the  space  between  the  ends 
of  the  bar  with  a  strap  of  flexible  material,  upon  which  the 
tile  is  received.  This  flexible  strap  conforms  to  the  outer 
surface  of  the  tile  and  prevents  it  from  becoming  flattened 
or  otherwise  disfigured  in  shape,  as  would  be  the  case  were 
it  carried  by  bars  which  did  not  conform  to  its  surface  while 
in  the  soft  and  plastic  state  in  which  it  issues  from  the  dies 
of  the  machine. 

The  invention  consists,  therefore,  in  the  combination, 
with  the  carrier-bars,  of  a  flexible  strap,  by  means  of  which 
the  carrier-bar  is  made  to  conform  to  the  shape  of  tile  of 
different  diameters. 

Fig.  182  is  a  perspective  view  of  a  carrier  complete  hav¬ 
ing  its  carrier-bars  provided  with  flexible  straps.  Fig.  183 
is  a  cross-section  of  a  carrier,  showing  the  position  assumed 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


385 


by  the  flexible  strap  when  carrying  a  tile.  Fig.  184  is  a 
perspective  view  of  one  of  the  bars  and  straps,  with  a  sec¬ 
tion  of  the  carrier-belt. 

In  constructing  this  machine  the  carrier-frame  A  is  formed 
in  the  usual  manner  of  two  side  pieces  connected  by  cross¬ 


bars  a,  and  supported  upon  short  legs  b ,  or  by  any  other 
suitable  means.  Above  the  cross-bars  a,  which  connect  the 
two  sides  of  the  frame,  is  placed  a  series  of  rollers  c,  which 
support  the  endless  carrier-belt  or  belts  B.  To  this  belt  are 
secured  by  screws  or  other  proper  means  the  carrier-bars  C. 
These  bars  have  a  cavity  or  hollow  in  the  side  opposite  that 
which  is  attached  to  the  carrier-belt,  and  bridging  this 
cavity  is  the  flexible  strap  D,  secured  at  each  end  to  the 
25 


386 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


carrier-bars  G  by  means  of  screws  e  or  other  proper  fastening 
devices.  These  straps  D  may  be  formed  of  leather,  rubber 
belting,  canvas,  or  any  other  material  possessing  sufficient 
strength  and  flexibility,  it  being  necessary  that  they  should 
give  a  firm  support  to  the  tile  and  at  the  same  time  con¬ 
form  readily  to  its  shape.  In  attaching  these  straps  D  to 
the  carrier- bars  it  is  preferable  to  allow  the  strap  to  drop  or 
sag  a  little,  as  is  clearly  shown  in  Fig.  184  of  the  drawings, 
as  it  is  thereby  caused  to  conform  more  readily  to  the  shape 
of  the  tile. 

The  frame  provided  with  carrier-belt  and  carrier-bars  hav¬ 
ing  a  concave  receiving  surface  to  receive  the  tile  as  it  comes 
from  the  forming-dies  are  old,  but  the  combination  of  the 
carrier-bars  and  a  flexible  bridging  strap  arranged  to  receive 
the  tile  as  it  issues  from  the  forming-die  is  a  new  idea. 


A  Contrivance  for  Preventing  the  Displacement  of 
Drain-Pipes  in  the  Kiln. 

The  contrivance  shown  in  Figs.  188  to  191  is  the  inven- 
tion  of  Mr.  John  Murtagh,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  and  is  for 
holding  or  binding  the  upper  course  of  pipes  during  the 
process  of  burning,  and  the  application  of  this  arrangement 
in  works  of  any  magnitude  cannot  fail  to  result  in  con¬ 
siderable  savings. 

In  the  manufacture  of  drain-pipe  it  not  unfrequently  hap¬ 
pens  that  much  of  the  pipe  comes  out  of  the  kiln  in  which 
it  is  burned  in  a  greatly  damaged  condition,  the  pipes  hav- 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


387 


mg  gotten  out  of  place  during  the  burning,  and  become  bent 
or  adhering  together  in  masses. 

The  object  of  this  invention  is  to  prevent  the  displacement 
of  the  pipes  when  in  the  kiln ;  and  the  invention  consists  in 
securing  each  pipe  of  the  top  tier  in  the  kiln  to  its  neigh¬ 
bors,  by  means  of  binders  made  of  clay  like  that  of  which 
the  pipes  are  made,  and  baked  or  burned  in  the  manner 


usual  in  this  art.  Figs.  188  and  189  are  diagrams,  Fig.  188 
illustrating  the  new  mode  of  securing  the  top  tier  of  pipes 
in  one  way,  and  Fig.  189  in  another,  both  ways  of  arrang¬ 
ing  the  top  tier  being  in  common  use. 

Figs.  185,  186,  and  187  show  three  forms  of  binders. 


388 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


Figs.  188  and  189  illustrate  two  modes  of  arranging  the 
upper  tier  of  pipes  in  the  kiln.  Figs.  190  and  191  illus¬ 
trate  the  relation  of  the  pipes  and  binders  before  and  after 
burning. 

The  binders  a  are  formed  of  the  clay  used  in  making  the 
pipe,  or  of  other  suitable  clay,  with  a  body-piece,  from 
which  project  two  or  more  legs,  as  shown  in  Figs.  185,  186, 
and  187,  and  then  burned  in  a  proper  kiln,  as  the  pipes  are 
burned.  The  mode  of  forming  and  burning  them  will  be 
well  understood  by  all  skilled  in  the  art  without  further  de¬ 
scription.  When  thus  made  they  are  hard,  and  although 
brittle,  like  other  crockery  or  pottery  ware,  are  yet  abun¬ 
dantly  strong  for  the  purpose.  They  may  be  used  again 
and  again  in  the  kiln,  the  heat  of  which  has  no  effect,  ex¬ 
cept  to  harden  them  more  each  time  they  are  used ;  and 
they  stand  the  heat  of  the  kiln  well,  and  are  in  all  respects 
admirably  adapted  for  their  intended  use.  One  set  of  them 
can  be  used  from  twenty  to  thirty  times  before  they  become 
too  much  vitrified. 

In  filling  the  kiln  the  unburned  pipes  are  placed  in  the 
usual  way ;  but  the  pipes  in  the  upper  tier  are  connected  each 
with  its  neighbors  by  these  binders,  as  illustrated  in  Figs. 
188  and  189,  where  A  represents  the  pipes,  and  a  the  bind¬ 
ers.  This  makes  the  upper  layer  of  pipes  one  compact  mass, 
and  does  away  completely  with  all  danger  of  their  get¬ 
ting  out  of  place  in  burning.  Binders  a1  are  used  to  con¬ 
nect  the  tier  of  pipes  with  the  wall  of  the  kiln,  special 
bricks  a2  being  built  into  the  wall  to  engage  with  the  end  of 
the  binders. 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


389 


It  is  customary  to  place  elbows  and  other  connecting  pipes 
on  top  of  the  upper  tier  in  filling  the  kiln,  and  these  binders  * 
make  a  floor  much  better  adapted  for  receiving  these  elbows 
and  connections  than  the  upper  ends  of  the  upper  tier  of 
pipes. 

The  practical  use  of  this  invention  has  demonstrated  that 
the  waste  from  this  source,  which  has  heretofore  been  one  of 
the  most  serious  sources  of  loss  in  this  manufacture,  is  en¬ 
tirely  done  away  with.  So  far  as  I  know,  the  present  in¬ 
ventor  is  the  first  to  devise  any  practical  remedy  for  this 
evil. 

The  pipes  shrink  in  burning,  so  that  the  binders  should 
fit  loosely  when  the  kiln  is  set,  as  shown  in  Fig.  190.  Fig. 
191  shows  the  position  of  the  pipes  after  they  are  burned. 

Machine  for  Cutting  Sewer  Pipe  Rings. 

The  object  of  the  invention  shown  in  Figs.  192  to  198  is 
the  production  of  a  machine  for  cutting  rings  from  clay  pipe 
while  in  the  green  or  undried  condition  in  which  they  are 
formed ;  and  which  rings  are  designed,  after  burning,  to  be 
employed  in  the  construction  of  drains  and  sewers,  or  for 
other  purposes ;  and  the  invention  consists  in  a  horizontally 
vibrating  wire-carrying  frame  arranged  to  swing  over  a  suit¬ 
able  pipe-supporting  platform,  and  capable  of  being  moved 
vertically  between  each  vibration  and  supported  in  place 
during  each  motion,  so  that  the  pipe  is  divided  by  vibrating 
wire  into  successive  rings. 

Figure  192  is  a  side  elevation  of  a  ring-cutter  embodying 


390 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


these  improvements.  Fig.  193  is  a  vertical  section  through 
the  upper  socket,  showing  the  catches  which  support  the 
racks  and  wire  frame.  Fig.  194  is  a  sectional  view,  showing 
the  ratchet  of  the  wire-reel.  Fig.  195  is  an  end  view  of 
the  wire-reel  on  an  enlarged  scale,  showing  its  mode  of 
attachment  to  the  lower  arm  of  the  wire-frame.  Fig.  196  is 


a  side  view  of  the  same.  Fig.  197  is  a  perspective  view. 
Fig.  198  is  a  sectional  view  on  the  line  cc  x,  Fig.  192. 

A,  Fig.  192,  is  an  upright  post  or  other  suitable  support, 
to  which  the  swinging  wire-carrying  frame  is  attached  by 
means  of  the  lugs  or  sockets  L  G  K  and  the  sliding  bar  B. 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


391 


P  is  the  pipe,  resting  on  the  fixed  platform  or  stand  £7, 
and  w  the  wire  strained  on  the  swinging  frame,  by  which 
the  pipe  is  cut. 

R  is  a  counter-weight,  by  which  the  swinging  frame  is 
balanced ;  and  C  C 1  are  the  racks,  and  h  j  the  catches  by 
which  the  length  of  the  rings  is  determined. 

The  swinging  frame  employed  consists  preferably  of  an 
upper  horizontal  arm  D,  an  upright  connecting-rod  F,  and 
a  lower  curved  arm  E.  The  inner  or  pivotal  ends  of  the 
horizontal  arms  are  formed  into  rings  or  journals  S 
which  turn  freely  on  socket-pieces  affixed  to  the  upright 
bar  B,  which  has  the  capacity  of  sliding  vertically  up  and 
down  through  the  sockets  L  G  K,  carrying  the  swinging 
frame  with  it.  The  weight  of  the  swinging  frame  and  the 
bar  B  is  nearly  counterbalanced  by  a  weight  R ,  attached  to 
a  cord  n,  which  passes  over  the  pulley  P,  secured  on  any 
suitable  support  Q ,  in  such  fashion  that  very  little  effort  is 
required  to  move  the  frame  and  bar  upward. 

In  order  to  provide  for  cutting  rings  of  different  lengths, 
two  or  more  racks  G  C 1  are  made  on  the  upper  end  of  the 
bar  B.  The  distance  between  the  teeth  of  these  racks  cor¬ 
responds  with  the  desired  length  of  the  rings  to  be  cut  by  the 
machine.  The  bar  B  may  be  either  round  or  square,  or  as 
represented  in  the  drawings,  cross-shaped  in  section,  in  which 
case  any  desired  number  of  racks  up  to  four  may  be  cut  on 
the  outer  margins  of  the  flanges  of  the  bar.  If  the  bar  be 
round  in  section,  any  desired  number  of  racks  may  be  let 
into  it  in  longitudinal  grooves.  Opposite  each  rack  in  the 
socket  K  are  placed  spring  catches  It  j ,  which  engage  with 


392 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


the  teeth  of  the  corresponding  rack,  and  support  the  bar  and 
swinging  frame  in  position  vertically.  Provision  is  made  for 
disengaging  the  catches  from  the  racks,  when  it  is  desired  to 
lower  the  swinging  frame,  by  means  of  the  cords  l  l , 
attached  to  the  catches,  passing  over  suitable  corner-pulleys 
(of  which  one  is  shown  at  N,  Fig.  192,  attached  to  the 
ceiling  or  other  support  0),  and  extending  downward,  and 
terminating  at  M.  The  catches  are  forced  inward  against 
the  rack  by  springs  j?,  Fig.  193.  A  weight  hung  on  the 
end  of  the  cord  l  serves  to  withdraw  the  catch  from  engage¬ 
ment  with  the  rack  when  it  is  not  desired  to  employ  the 
corresponding  rack. 

The  lower  arm  E  of  the  swinging  frame  is  bent  or  curved 
horizontally,  as  represented  in  the  drawings,  Figs.  197  and 
198,  in  order  to  permit  of  the  swinging  motion  of  the  frame 
by  which  the  pipe  is  severed  into  rings.  The  vibration  of 
the  swinging  frame  during  the  pipe-cutting  operation,  is  rep¬ 
resented  by  the  dotted  lines  E'  E",  Fig.  198. 

The  frame  may  be  made  of  sufficient  strength  to  sustain 
the  wire  w  without  the  curved  arm  E ;  but  it  is  preferable,  for 
the  sake  of  lightness,  to  employ  it.  Where  it  is  not  used  the 
two  rings  S  and  S'  should  be  connected  by  an  upright  bar, 
so  that  they  oscillate  together.  A  handle  T  may  be  affixed 
to  the  swinging  frame.  The  wire  w  is  strained  across  the 
lower  part  of  the  swinging  frame,  as  represented  in  the 
drawings.  It  may  be  fastened  at  its  ends  by  screw-clamps 
or  by  being  twisted  about  a  hook  a,  Fig.  196,  or  in  any  other 
suitable  manner. 

In  order  to  prevent  loss  of  time  consumed  in  replacing 


ROOFING-TILES  AND  SEWER-PIPES. 


393 


the  wire  when  it  is  accidentally  broken,  the  inventor  attaches 
to  the  ring  S'  a  reel  c,  Figs.  195  and  196,  about  which  a  sup¬ 
ply  of  wire  is  wound.  The  reel-shaft  i  is  provided  with  a 
ratchet  /,  Fig.  194,  inclosed  within  a  casing,  which  protects 
it  from  dirt,  attached  to  the  outer  support  r  of  the  shaft,  and 
which  casing  carries  a  catch  g,  by  which  the  reel  is  prevented 
from  turning  in  the  direction  in  which  the  wire  unwinds. 
When  the  wire  breaks,  all  that  is  necessary  with  this  arrange¬ 
ment  is  to  raise  the  catch  g ,  pull  out  the  wire  and  secure  it 
by  twisting  it  about  the  hook  a,  or  in  any  other  suitable 
manner,  and  to  strain  up  the  wire  tight  by  turning  the  reel 
by  the  handle  d. 

In  the  practical  operation  of  this  improved  pipe-cutter, 
one  or  more  of  the  pipes  which  it  is  desired  to  cut  into  rings 
being  placed  upright  on  the  platform  U,  the  operator  swing¬ 
ing  the  frame  backward  and  forward  from  the  positions  in¬ 
dicated  by  E  w\  Fig.  198,  to  E"  to",  passes  the  wire  through 
the  pipe  and  severs  it.  At  each  end  of  the  oscillating  mo¬ 
tion  of  the  swinging  frame,  it  is  raised  upward,  or  depressed 
for  a  distance  corresponding  with  one  of  the  teeth  of  the 
racks  G  or  C\  occupying  in  succession  the  positions  indi¬ 
cated  by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  198  and  cutting  a  ring 
from  the  pipe  while  moving  in  each  direction.  A  number 
of  pipes  may  be  cut  into  rings  at  one  time,  if  placed  on  the 
platform  TJ.  After  the  completion  of  the  cutting  operation 
the  rings,  which  remain  on  each  other,  are  removed,  and  the 
operation  repeated. 

The  inventor  prefers  to  commence  the  cutting  operation 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  pipe,  moving  the  frame  upward 


394 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


between  each  cut,  and  using  the  handle  M  only,  to  disen¬ 
gage  the  dog  h  from  the  rack  £7,  when  it  becomes  neces¬ 
sary  to  depress  the  swinging  frame. 

The  barrow  shown  in  Fig.  199  is  intended  for  wheeling 
sewer  pipe  and  drain  pipe,  and  it  is  built  very  substantially, 


Fig.  199. 


the  wheel  being  of  iron,  and  the  remainder,  with  the  ex^ 
ception  of  the  back  braces,  being  of  wood. 

The  usual  price  of  barrows  of  this  class  is  $6. 


i 


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uMMKmmnam. 


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jjggllj 

II . ^  .*.c3K 

CORONATION  OF  THE  VIRGIN— LUCA  SELLA  ROBBIA. — Page  395. 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


395 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 

Section  I.  General  Remarks. 

The  earliest  mention  and  description  of  a  colored  pave¬ 
ment  in  sacred  history  are  about  521  B.  C. ;  this  pavement 
was  at  Susa,  in  the  garden  court  of  the  palace  of  Ahasuerus, 
who  is  probably  the  Xerxes  of  Greek  profane  history.  This 
pavement  is  described  as  “a  pavement  of  red,  and  blue,  and 
white,  and  black  marble.” — Esther  i.  6. 

The  art  of  enamelling  in  glazed  colors  was  well  under¬ 
stood  by  the  people  of  this  locality  at  the  time  when  the 
pavement  was  in  use,  as  well  as  at  an  earlier  period,  as  will 
appear  from  the  description  of  the  peculiar  enamelled  coffins 
which  were  used,  and  which  will  be  described  later. 

Blue  was  a  favorite  color,  and  the  red  and  blue  of  the 
pavement  may  have  been  enamelled  tiles,  and  the  white  and 
black  of  marble. 

At  this  time  all  manner  of  extravagances  and  dissipations 
were  indulged  in  by  this  ruler ;  his  kingdom  extended  over 
one  hundred  and  twenty -seven  provinces,  from  India  to 
Ethiopia,  and  it  was  the  custom  of  Xerxes  to  feast  the 


396 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


power  of  Persia  and  Media  for  long  periods,  and  to  display 
to  them  the  riches  and  beauties  of  his  glorious  kingdom. 

It  was  in  a  description  of  one  of  these  feasts  that  the 
colored  pavement  was  mentioned.  Xerxes  had  exhibited 
everything  in  the  way  of  magnificence  to  the  guests,  and 
“  when  the  heart  of  the  king  was  merry  with  wine,”  he 
commanded  Queen  Vashti  to  show  the  princes  and  the  people 
her  beauty,  for  she  was  fair  to  look  upon. 

Her  oriental  modesty  would  not  allow  this,  and  for  her 
refusal,  this  tyrant  divorced  her,  and  the  Jewess  Esther  was 
chosen  to  fill  her  place. 

It  is  sad,  but  it  is  true,  that  it  was  at  just  such  times  of 
extravagance,  dissipation,  arrogance,  tyranny,  and  oppres¬ 
sion,  that  all  classes  of  arts  in  very  ancient  times  flourished 
and  were  stimulated  to  the  highest  perfection,  and  then 
quickly  declined  and  were  lost  in  the  ruin  that  usually  fol¬ 
lows  such  epochs  in  the  world’s  history. 

It  was  in  the  same  palace,  and  most  likely  in  the  court, 
that  Nehemiah  in  great  sorrow,  three-quarters  of  a  century 
later,  heard  from  one  of  his  brethren  and  certain  men  of 
Judah,  that  the  remnant  of  the  Jews  left  from  the  captivity 
in  the  provinces  were  in  great  suffering,  and  that  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem  was  broken  down,  and  the  beautiful  gates 
burned. 

It  has  been  often  stated  that  the  floor  of  the  Temple  of 
Solomon  was  a  colored  pavement.  The  temple  was  finished 
about  four  hundred  and  eighty-six  years  earlier  than  the 
time  named  in  the  commencement  of  this  chapter,  and 
it  would  be  very  interesting  to  know  that  the  floor  of  this 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


397 


most  beautiful  building  was  so  paved.  But  in  Kings  vi.  15, 
we  are  distinctly  told  that  the  floor  of  the  temple  was  cov¬ 
ered  with  planks  of  fir. 

The  history  of  colored  pavements  probably  followed  the 
high  perfection  in  brick-making,  which  flourished  during 
periods  of  great  extravagance. 

Diodorus  Siculus  relates  that  the  bricks  of  the  walls  of 
Babylon,  erected  under  the  orders  of  Semiramis,  were  deco¬ 
rated  with  all  kinds  of  living  creatures  portrayed  in  various 
colors  upon  the  bricks  before  they  were  burned. 

The  glazing  in  fixed  colors  came  to  us  partially  through 
the  Arabians  in  Spain,  who  derived  it  from  India,  and  pri¬ 
marily  from  China. 

Glazed  decorative  tiles  were  much  used  in  mediaeval  times 
for  paving  sacred  edifices;  they  are  sometimes  called  Nor¬ 
man  tiles  by  old  writers,  from  the  supposition  that  they 
originated  in  Normandy.  There  are  some  specimens  of 
great  age  in  northern  France ;  although  no  tiles  have  as 
yet  been  discovered  in  England  that  coincide  with  the  fea¬ 
tures  of  the  Norman  style  of  architectural  decoration,  the 
most  ancient  being  apparently  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  Normans  were  a  race  quick  to  seize  upon  every  art 
that  would  add  to  the  beauty  of  their  buildings,  either  ex¬ 
ternally,  or  to  the  interior;  and  in  the  twelfth  century,  after 
the  return  of  the  Crusaders,  many  ornaments  were  added  to 
their  structures. 

When  the  Crusaders  visited  Byzantium,  Palestine,  and 
Syria,  they  discovered  buildings  highly  ornamented,  and  in 


398 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


which  glazed  tiles  were  used,  and  they  were  attracted  by 
many  of  the  architectural  features. 

They  carried  back  with  them  detail  drawings  of  mouldings 
and  designs,  and  among  other  things,  glazed  tiles,  and  most 
likely  some  knowledge  of  their  manufacture. 

The  abbey  of  Voulton,  near  Provins,  the  hunting  gallery 
of  St.  Louis,  at  Fontainebleau,  a  chateau  near  Quimperl6, 
St.  Etienne  d’Agen,  and  many  other  buildings  offer  curious 
specimens  of  Norman  tiles,  and  the  employment  of  decora¬ 
tive  tiles  about  the  same  period  was  not  less  common  or 
much  less  brilliant  in  England. 

Stone  had  supplied  all  the  wants  of  the  Normans  until  the 
twelfth  century.  From  this  time  new  ideas  everywhere 
appeared  at  once;  tiles  of  red  earth,  of  various  forms,  were 
substituted  for  stone ;  their  surfaces  were  covered  with  a  thin 
layer  of  white  clay,  in  which  were  incrusted  patterns  of  darker 
earth,  or  vice  versa.  These  baked  enamelled  tiles  were  not  so 
easily  worn  by  the  constant  steps  of  the  faithful,  as  they  were 
trodden  every  day  in  the  vast  naves  of  the  churches  by  the 
feet  of  the  Christian  multitude.  The  tiles  were  arranged 
in  a  graceful  chequer-work ;  trefoils,  rosettes,  and  scrolls 
of  notched  leaves  were  formed  and  combined  into  graceful 
borders,  sections  of  divided  circles  were  ornamented  with 
stars  or  heraldic  suns ;  warriors  heavily  armed  and  clad 
in  armor,  and  mounted  upon  richly  caparisoned  horses, 
were  in  active  pursuit  of  one  another;  heads,  busts,  lions, 
eagles,  and  all  other  things  that  fancy  and  heraldry  could 
jointly  invent,  animated  the  cold  pavements;  most  of  the 
ornamental  combinations  resembled  the  designs  we  are  ac- 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


399 


customed  to  see  in  the  textile  fabrics  of  the  East ;  and  we 
ought  to  be  the  less  astonished  at  this  when  we  remember 
the  visits  of  the  Crusaders  to  Syria,  Byzantium,  and  Pales¬ 
tine,  where  this  character  of  ornamentation  was  so  largely 
employed  from  the  ninth  until  the  twelfth  century. 

The  Normans,  even  at  that  early  date,  believed  not  only 
in  massive  details  of  construction,  but  also  in  the  cheerful 
effects  of  a  harmonious  combination  of  colors  and  designs 
for  interior  relief. 

All  the  rich  Norman  mouldings  were  copied  by  the  Eng¬ 
lish,  and  most  likely  a  great  part  of  the  knowledge  of  the 
employment  and  manufacture  of  glazed  tiles  was  imparted 
to  them  by  their  Norman  neighbors. 

They  were  a  very  energetic  race ;  they  took  excessive  de¬ 
light  in  building;  their  princes  and  nobles  seem  to  have  taken 
their  greatest  pleasure  in  dwelling  in  and  constantly  beauti¬ 
fying  their  magnificent  castles. 

They  did  not  care  so  much  for  feasting  and  high  living  as 
their  English  neighbors,  who  were  greatly  stimulated  to 
construction  by  the  example  of  these  sturdy  builders. 

But  no  credit  can  be  claimed  by  the  Normans  for  having 
originated  glazed  tiles,  as  this,  like  many  other  decorative 
arts  of  Western  Europe,  was  borrowed  from  the  East  by  the 
Crusaders. 

Many  of  the  early  Norman  glazed  tiles  correspond  with 
features  of  Byzantine  architecture,  from  which  the  Gothic 
styles  of  architecture  are  also  drawn  quite  as  freely  as  from 
the  Roman. 

The  idea,  which  is  quite  popular,  that  the  art  of  painting 


400  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

in  enamelled  colors,  which  afterwards  became  glazed  or  fixed 
to  a  clay  body,  originated  about  the  ninth  century  with  the 
Arabians  in  Spain,  is  clearly  disproved  by  the  glazed  bricks 
of  Babylon,  the  enamelled  tiles  from  the  ruined  cities  of  the 
Desert,  and  the  colored,  glazed  coffins  of  those  Assyrian  cities 
of  the  dead  discovered  by  Mr.  Kennett  Loftus. 

These  glazed  or  enamelled  coffins  were  in  general  use  at 
Warka,  Nifiar,  Zibizza,  and  other  localities  throughout  Chal¬ 
dea.  In  form,  they  resembled  a  slipper,  but  in  symmetry 
and  elegance  they  were  models  of  beauty,  their  general  de¬ 
sign  and  finish  displaying  a  high  knowledge  of  the  art  of 
pottery. 

The  body  was  placed  in  the  coffin  through  an  oval 
aperture  near  the  head,  which  was  afterwards  sealed  with  a 
neat  fitting  lid,  cemented  down  with  fine  lime  mortar. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  bursting  of  the  coffin  by  the  con¬ 
fined  gases,  a  semicircular  hole  was  left  in  the  lower  end. 

The  top  was  divided  into  square  panels  by  raised  ridges, 
which  were  sometimes  plain,  and  at  others  very  ornamental ; 
each  panel  or  division  was  relieved  by  a  similar  diminutive 
embossed  warrior,  measuring  about  six  and  one-half  inches. 

The  small  figure  had  its  legs  wide  astride,  a  short  sword 
belted  at  the  left  side,  the  arms  akimbo,  and  the  hands  rested 
flat  on  a  short  fitting  tunic.  The  head-dress  was  peculiar, 
and  the  general  .resemblance  was  similar  to  the  figures  on 
coins  of  the  Parthian  and  Sassian  periods. 

Glazing  of  rich  green  enamel  covered  the  entire  exterior 
surface  of  the  coffin,  and  within  the  color  was  blue. 

The  Arabs  were  attracted  by  the  gold  ornaments  which 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


401 


these  coffins  contained,  and  often  broke  and  despoiled  them 
in  large  numbers. 

It  is  certain  that  the  art  of  enamelling  in  the  island  of 
Majorca,  where  it  reached  great  perfection,  was  derived  from 
the  Arabians  in  Spain. 

The  name  majolica  is  applied  to  all  tiles  or  earthenware 
having  the  ornament  in  relief,  the  embossed  ornament  and 
ground  being  decorated  with  various  colored  enamels. 

The  art  of  manufacturing  and  enamelling  majolica  ware 
was  lost  for  a  long  period,  but  in  the  fifteenth  century  this 
ware,  and  the  art  of  imitating  ancient  productions  were 
highly  prized  by  the  Italians,  under  the  names  majolica  and 
porcellana ,  from  the  Portuguese  word  for  a  cup,  and  Robbia 
ware  after  the  sculptor  who  rediscovered  it. 

The  first  manufactory  of  this  ware  possessed  by  the  Ital¬ 
ians  was  erected  at  Faenza,  in  the  ecclesiastical  states, 
whence  the  French  term  fayence ,  now  much  used,  had  its 
derivation. 

The  body  of  the  ware  was  usually  a  red  clay,  and  the 
glaze  was  opaque ;  the  oxides  of  lead  and  tin,  mixed  with 
potash  and  sand,  were  the  usual  ingredients  employed  in 
producing  it. 

This  glaze  was  the  discovery  of  Luca  della  Robbia,  which, 
after  the  exercise  of  great  patience  and  “  experiments  innu¬ 
merable,”  he  was  enabled  to  apply,  not  only  mechanically, 
but  with  great  artistic  skill. 

Luca  della  Robbia  was  born  at  Florence  in  1400  and 

died  soon  after  reaching  fourscore  years,  and  in  addition  to 
26 


402  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

his  fame  as  a  great  enamel  painter,  he  ranked  highly  as  a 
sculptor. 

At  a  very  early  age  he  was  apprenticed  to  the  leading 
goldsmith  of  his  native  place ;  but  his  ideas  turned  to  sculp¬ 
ture,  and  he  soon  began  to  model  in  wax  with  an  unusual 
ardor.  The  only  memorials  of  that  period,  which  lasted 
until  he  was  forty-five  years  old,  are  the  bas-reliefs  in  the 
side  of  the  Campanile  towards  the  Duomo,  and  two  unfin¬ 
ished  reliefs  in  the  Uffizi,  Florence. 

The  first  represents  Music,  Philosophy,  Geometry,  Gram¬ 
mar,  and  Astronomy ;  Plato  and  Aristotle ;  Ptolemy  and 
Euclid  ;  and  a  man  playing  the  lute. 

Those  that  are  unfinished  are  the  Imprisonment  and  Cru¬ 
cifixion  of  St.  Peter. 

There  are  also  in  the  Uffizi  the  bas-reliefs  made  for  the 
balustrade  of  an  organ  in  the  Duomo.  These  were  under¬ 
taken  in  1445,  and  most  decidedly  establish  his  claim  to 
a  very  high  rank  among  Italian  sculptors.  The  position 
which  they  occupy  is  a  very  trying  one,  but  they  suffer 
nothing  from  it,  although  every  opportunity  for  the  most 
minute  examination  of  them  is  accorded.  They  represent 
youths  dancing,  singing,  and  playing  on  musical  instru¬ 
ments. 

It  may  be  that  Luca  studied  with  Ghiberti,  as  has  often 
been  stated,  but  of  this  there  is  no  positive  confirmation. 
He  did,  however,  learn  bronze  casting  with  some  one,  as  he 
made  the  doors  of  the  sacristy  of  the  Duomo. 

He  executed  one  of  the  finest  of  the  many  cinque-cento 
tombs  for  the  Bishop  Benozzo-Federighi  of  Friesole.  A 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


403 


portion  of  the  decorations  of  this  tomb  were  enamelled  tiles 
painted  with  fruits  and  flowers  in  their  natural  colors. 

Vasari  accords  Luca  the  credit  of  inventing  enamel  paint¬ 
ing;  he  excelled  in  it,  but  it  had  long  been  practised  by  the 
ancient  nations  as  has  been  shown,  and  from  time  to  time 
by  the  Italians  also. 

Luca  also  introduced  some  changes  by  coloring  his  enamel 
for  certain  portions  of  the  background,  such  as  the  plants, 
draperies,  etc.  He  left  a  very  large  number  of  these  works 
which  are  exceedingly  beautiful.  The  frontispiece  of  this 
chapter  represents  one  of  Luca’s  latest  productions. 

In  the  Kensington  Museum  there  are  twelve  medallions 
representing  the  months,  and  which  are  supposed  to  have 
been  executed  by  Luca  for  the  decoration  of  a  writing  cabinet 
for  Piero  de  Medici.  One  of  the  most  exquisitely  beau¬ 
tiful  of  all  these  works  in  enamel  is  the  “  Coronation  of 
the  Virgin”  in  the  altar-piece  in  the  church  of  the  Osser- 
vansa  near  Siena.  After  the  death  of  Luca  the  secret  of  his 
method  of  enamelling  was  very  carefully  guarded  by  his 
family  and  was  a  great  fortune  to  them,  and  they  made  a 
system  of  polychromatic  architectural  decorations. 

Andrea,  his  nephew,  and  Luca  II.,  the  son,  were  em¬ 
ployed  for  eleven  years  in  decorating  the  Ceppo  Hospital, 
at  Pistoja,  with  a  frieze  which  represents  the  seven  acts  of 
Mercy;  the  effect  of  this  work  is  very  pleasing  as  well  as 
brilliant.  Pope  Leo  X.  employed  Luca  II.  to  pave  the 
Loggie  of  the  Vatican  with  colored  glazed  tiles. 

Girolamo  and  Giovanni,  brothers  of  Luca  II.,  also  worked 
in  Robbia  ware,  and  the  first  went  to  France  and  was  much 


404  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

employed  by  Francis  I.  in  the  decoration  of  his  Chateau  de 
Madrid,  in  the  Bois  de  Boulogne. 

Bernard  Palissy  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  which  was  a  century  later  than  the  early  productions 
of  Luca  della  Robbia,  manufactured  a  similar  article,  but 
differently  ornamented,  which  is  called  “Palissy  ware.” 
This  ware  is  remarkable  for  its  faithful  imitation  of  animals 
and  plants,  as  well  as  for  its  beautiful  and  gently  blended 
glaze. 

The  patience  with  which  Palissy  prosecuted  the  discovery 
of  this  ware,  his  fortitude  under  successive  failures  in  ovens 
and  burnings,  his  hard  labor,  poverty  and  suffering  for  more 
than  sixteen  years,  display  energy  and  courage  of  a  high 
order,  and  seem  more  like  a  romance  than  a  reality. 

The  small  fishes,  frogs,  reptiles,  and  grasses  which  he  used 

in  ornamenting  the  ware  were  taken  from  the  rivers,  marshes, 

and  fields,  and  before  they  had  time  to  wither  were  quickly 

• 

cast  in  some  rapidly  setting  composition.  The  mould  was 
then  carefully  divided  in  any  number  of  desired  parts,  and 
the  animal  or  grass  which  served  as  a  model  removed,  the 
grease  with  which  it  was  covered  making  this  quite  easy 
without  injury  to  the  cast.  The  place  of  final  manufacture 
was  at  Saintes,  in  France. 

Not  long  after  Palissy,  the  Dutch  produced  aware  similar 
in  designs  to  the  Robbia  and  Palissy  wares ;  it  was  very  sub¬ 
stantial  and  well  made,  and  they  called  it  Delft-ware;  but 
it  was  utterly  destitute  of  those  beautiful  and  gracefully  ex¬ 
pressive  forms  and  painting  for  which  the  Robbia-ware  of 
Faienza  is  so  highly  esteemed,  and  for  which  it  will  prob¬ 
ably  be  remembered  until  the  end  of  civilization. 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


405 


The  remarkable  paving  of  the  chateau  of  Ecouen  has 
often  been  ascribed  to  Italians,  the  beautiful  tiles  are  some¬ 
times  attributed  to  a  member  of  the  della  Robbia  family,  at 
other  times  to  a  fugitive  from  the  majolica  manufactures, 
and  some  writers  have  even  credited  them  to  the  talent  of 
Bernard  Palissy. 

There  is  not  the  slightest  question  as  to  their  origin ;  this 
indication  of  the  place  of  their  origin  is  inscribed  among  the 
arabesques,  A.  Rouen,  1542,  and  the  receipt  of  Masseot 
Abaquesne,  enameller  in  earth,  then  living  in  the  parish  of 
Notre  Dame  de  Sottevillelez,  Rouen,  for  the  final  payment 
for  this  work  was  executed  Thursday,  March  7,  1548. 

The  reputation  of  Abaquesne  had  been  made  previous  to 
the  paving  of  the  chateau  of  Ecouen.  In  1535  he  decorated 
a  “  salle  faiencee”  at  the  hotel  known  as  the  “  Logis  du 
Roi”  at  Havre,  and  in  the  manor-house  of  Bevilliers,  near 
Harfleur,  a  pavement  almost  similar,  inscribed  1536. 

In  1557  Abaquesne  gave  a  receipt  in  full  and  clear  of  all 
demands  for  the  making  of  a  certain  number  of  enamelled 
tiles  for  the  Sieur  Durfe,  as  governor  of  the  Dauphin  (later 
the  young  and  short-lived  Francis  II.),  according  to  the  de¬ 
signs  which  Durfe  had  given  him  for  that  purpose. 

These  tiles  were  possibly  used  in  this  “  chateau  de  la 
faiencee,”  as  Delorme  styled  it  after  being  ousted  from  the 
direction  of  the  works,  and  it  is  not  at  all  unlikely  that  these 
same  tiles  found  a  place  in  the  pavements  of  the  chateau 
while  under  the  direction  of  this  identical  Delorme  in  1557. 

The  glazed  tiles  for  decorative  employments  are  usually 
of  four  classes,  and  are  commonly  called  “  art  tiles,”  enam¬ 
elled  tiles,  embossed  majolica  tiles,  and  encaustic  tiles. 


406 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


The  first  are  usually  hand-painted,  and  are  employed 
largely  for  decorating  grate  cheeks,  pilasters,  and  cabinet 
work;  the  enamelled  tiles  are  also  employed  for  the  above 
purposes  as  well  as  for  flower-boxes,  wall  linings,  string 
courses,  and  other  purposes  of  architectural  decoration ;  and 
the  embossed  majolica  tiles  are  also  employed  for  the  same 
purposes.  Encaustic,  plain,  and  Mosaic  tiles  are  employed 
for  pavements.  Inlaid  encaustic  glazed  tiles  of  extra  thick¬ 
ness  are  used  for  hearths,  and  self-colored  glazed  tiles  of 
white,  celadon,  turquoise,  olive  and  buff  colors  in  squares,  or 
of  geometrical  form,  are  largely  employed  for  wall  linings. 

Decorative  tiles  may  also  be  described,  according  to  their 
decorations,  in  another  manner :  First,  those  made  with  flat 
surfaces,  and  either  of  a  natural  or  artificial  monochrome 
without  designs,  called  “  self-colored  tiles,”  or  ornamented 
with  surface  enamel,  or  painting  in  outline,  monochrome,  or 
polychrome ;  second,  those  made  with  flat  surfaces,  inlaid  in 
chromatic  patterns  to  a  slight  depth,  otherwise  known  as 
“encaustic  tiles;”  third,  those  made  with  designs  in  relief; 
fourth,  those  made  with  irregular,  incised,  indented,  or  de¬ 
pressed  designs,  having  texture  in  the  depressions.  Either 
of  the  last  two  sorts  may  be  painted  in  monochrome  or  poly¬ 
chrome,  and  either  of  the  four  sorts  may  be  glazed  either 
with  a  colorless  glaze  or  with  a  colored  glaze,  or  may  be 
enamelled. 

The  great  perfection  to  which  this  important  branch  of 
pottery  has  arrived  in  so  short  a  period  of  time  just  past,  is 
largely  due  to  the  great  energy  and  practical  intelligence  of 
Mr.  Herbert  Minton,  in  England;  and  the  firm  of  Minton 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


407 


&  Co.  is  so  well  known  in  connection  with  it  that  there  is 
no  necessity  for  enlarging  upon  their  achievements. 

The  history  of  the  revival  in  this  line  of  manufacture 
commences,  in  England,  with  about  the  latter  half  of  the 
present  century.  Mr.  F.  J.  Wyatt’s  patent  for  imitating 
tesselated  pavements  with  colored  cement  proved  unsatis¬ 
factory,  from  unequal  wearing,  early  in  the  century. 

The  experiments  of  Mr.  Blashfield  in  this  line  with  bitu¬ 
men,  colored  with  metallic  oxides,  also  proved  at  first  unsat¬ 
isfactory  ;  but  he  finally  succeeded  in  some  undertakings, 
and  constructed  an  extensive  and  elaborate  inlaid  pavement 
on  the  plan  of  the  Venetian  Pise  floors,  after  the  designs  of 
Mr.  H.  S.  Hope,  which  is  still  in  a  good  state  of  preser¬ 
vation  at  the  country-seat  of  the  designer. 

One  of  the  most  important  steps  towards  the  revival  of 
the  art  was  the  mode  of  Mr.  Singer,  of  Vauxhall,  for  form¬ 
ing  tesserae  by  the  cutting  out  of  thin  layers,  pieces  of  the  re¬ 
quired  form,  which  were  afterwards  dried  and  baked  in  the 
usual  way.  This  patent  also  improved  the  method  of  unit¬ 
ing  the  tesserae  with  cement,  so  as  to  form  a  slab  of  conve¬ 
nient  size  for  paving,  and  some  admirable  mosaics  were 
executed  by  him  in  this  way. 

In  1840,  Mr.  Prosser,  of  Birmingham,  discovered  that  if 
the  material  of  porcelain  (a  mixture  of  flint  and  fine  clay) 
be  reduced  to  a  dry  powder,  and  in  that  state  be  subjected  to 
strong  pressure  between  steel  dies,  the  powder  is  compressed 
into  about  one-half  of  its  bulk,  and  is  converted  into  a  com¬ 
pact,  solid  substance,  of  extraordinary  hardness  and  density, 
much  less  porous  and  much  harder  than  the  common  porce¬ 
lain,  uncompressed  and  baked  in  the  furnace. 


408 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


The  applicability  of  this  ingenious  process  to  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  tesserae  for  pavements  soon  afterwards  occurred  to 
Mr.  Blashfield,  who  made  arrangements  with  Messrs.  Min¬ 
ton  &  Co.  (the  manufacturers  appointed  to  work  Mr. 
Prosser’s  patent)  for  a  supply  of  small  cubes,  made  according 
to  the  new  process ;  these  he  submitted  to  various  trials  and 
experiments,  and  having  found  them  in  every  respect  suit¬ 
able  for  the  purpose,  he,  in  conjunction  with  Messrs.  Wyatt, 
Parker  &  Co.,  carried  out  the  invention  on  an  extensive 
scale.  Tesserae  of  various  colors  and  forms — red,  blue,  yel¬ 
low,  white,  black,  brown  ;  quadrilateral,  triangular,  rhom- 
boidal,  hexagonal,  etc. — have  been  manufactured  on  this 
principle  in  large  numbers.  Pavements  of  considerable 
extent  have  been  constructed  with  them,  and  they  have 
been  found  to  possess  the  following  advantages : — 

First,  being  formed  in  similar  steel  dies,  they  are  of  uni¬ 
form  size  and  shape,  so  that  they  can  be  fitted  together  accu¬ 
rately,  in  the  laying  down  of  the  most  complicated  designs. 

Secondly,  being  all  composed  of  the  same  material, 
variously  colored,  they  are  all  of  precisely  equal  hardness, 
so  that  pavements  made  with  them  are  not  liable  to  wear 
into  hollows  by  use. 

Lastly,  owing  to  the  effect  of  the  intense  pressure  under 
which  they  are  made,  they  are  quite  impervious  to  moisture, 
of  a  flinty  texture  throughout,  and,  in  a  word,  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  imperishable. 

Another  and  later  method  than  that  invented  by  Mr. 
Prosser,  that  of  using  dust-clay,  is  known  as  the  “  Boulton 
and  W  orthington  process,”  and  is  used  by  Malkin  &  Co.  It 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


409 


consists  in  the  use  of  metallic  boxes,  fitted  with  plungers,  and 
fashioned  like  the  arabesques  or  other  patterns,  to  be  used 
as  ornaments,  in  which  the  “  design-clay”  dusts  are  com¬ 
pressed  within  a  frame,  which  frame  is  afterward, — the  boxes 
and  plungers  being  first  removed, — filled  with  clay-dust  of 
the  ground  color,  which  is  compressed  within  the  frame  and 
around  the  pattern  made  as  stated,  and  the  whole  then  fired. 
But  up  to  the  present  time,  so  far  as  I  am  informed,  no 
relief-tiles  or  intaglio  tiles  having  texture  in  the  depressions 
have  been  made  in  whole  or  in  part  by  compression  out  of 
clay-dust,  and  certainly  no  tiles,  excepting  Low’s,  having 
“undercut”  designs  have  been  made  in  any  part  out  of 
compressed  clay-dust. 

The  great  and  rapid  progress  that  has  been  made  in  this 
refining  art  in  England,  is  an  achievement  of  which  they  are 
justly  proud.  Their  hand-painted  “  art-tiles,”  richly  glazed 
enamelled  tiles,  and  embossed  and  glazed  majolica,  are  mar¬ 
vels  of  beauty,  considering  the  short  time  since  the  revival 
of  the  art  of  their  production. 

The  tiles  which  have  been  named  are  very  beautiful,  and 
it  hardly  seems  just  to  compare  the  present  production  of 
tiles  with  another  branch  of  the  ceramic  art,  and  with  a 
people  who  have  fostered  a  national  passion  for  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  beautiful  porcelain  and  enamel  ware  for  more  than 
a  thousand  years.  But  the  subjects  of  hand-painted  “  art 
tiles,”  and  glazed  enamelled  tiles  of  all  kinds,  are  so  closely 
allied  to  the  glazed  and  enamelled  porcelain  productions  of 
the  whole  world,  that  there  is  an  almost  irresistible  impulse 

. 


410 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


to  compare  and  examine  the  designs  and  enamels  of  old  and 
new  Japanese  productions,  and  then  we  are  sadly  impressed 
with  the  fact  that,  with  all  our  boasted  culture,  refinement, 
morality,  and  higher  civilization,  we  are  immeasurably  their 
inferiors  in  this  cherished  branch  of  knowledge. 

The  artists  of  Japan  are  more  truthful,  sympathetic,  and 
faithful  in  their  delineations  of  birds,  foliage,  and  flowers 
than  we  are ;  they  seem  to  discover,  as  if  by  instinct,  the 
salient  points  of  natural  objects,  and  to  portray  them  in 
form  so  true,  in  feeling  so  soft  and  appealing,  yet  in  manner 
of  treating  so  strong  and  striking  in  all  their  details,  that 
we  pause,  admire,  wonder ;  but  to  imitate  seems  impossible. 

“  They  confine  themselves  to  no  particular  object ;  no  one 
subject  receives  more  care  or  consideration  than  another; 
from  the  highly  cultivated,  magnificent  flower  of  gigantean 
proportions,  to  the  humble,  shrinking,  modest  daisy  hiding 
away  in  the  high  grass,  as  well  as  the  strong  sturdy  fir  tree 
to  the  dwarf  oak,  that  can  hardly  be  seen,  from  the  imagina¬ 
tive  Ho-ho ,  down  to  the  most  insignificant  inhabitant  of 
the  feathery  kingdom  in  their  sunny  island  home,  all  are 
treated  impartially.”  * 

They  not  only  excel  in  the  rendering  of  animate  and  in¬ 
animate  forms  for  decorative  purposes,  but  their  ingenuity 
in  designing  geometrical  forms,  and  other  conventional  de¬ 
vices  for  the  ornamentation  of  surfaces  of  all  shapes  is  also 
superior  to  our  adaptation  for  the  same  purposes. 

As  we  stand  in  the  Kensington  Museum  and  gaze  upon 
the  specimens  of  Hizen  ware,  Satsuma  faienc6e,  Ise,  Kaga, 
Iviota,  Owari,  and  other  most  beautiful  productions  of  a 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


411 


country  abounding  in  glorious  artists,  there  is  pure  admira¬ 
tion,  unabased  by  any  lower  feelings. 

As  a  people  they  are  much  closer  observers  than  any  other 
nation;  in  their  holidays  they  gather  from  the  woods  and 
the  fields  natural  objects,  carry  them  to  their  city  homes, 
preserve  them  as  long  as  possible  in  all  their  beauty,  and 
when  they  perish,  reproduce  them  in  artificial  representa¬ 
tives. 

But  this  branch  of  pottery  does  not  belong  to  the  present 
volume,  and  the  expressions  of  admiration  have  been  be¬ 
trayed  even  as  my  eyes,  at  the  instant  of  writing  these 
words,  feasted  upon  some  beautiful  specimens  of  the  wares 
which  have  been  named. 

The  effect  of  the  highly  glazed  porcelain,  the  brilliant 
designs,  the  fabulous  Ho-lio  richly  gilded,  alternate  panels 
ornamented  with  vases  of  flowers,  which  seem  to  yield  a 
fragrance  as  sweet  as  they  are  beautiful,  the  perfectly  har¬ 
monious  colors  of  grounds,  sometimes  white,  and  next  a  rich 
deep  blue,  peaceful  landscapes,  and  even  the  conventional 
ornaments  so  appropriately  employed,  make  my  every  fibre 
quiver  with  pleasure  and  perfect  sympathy. 

The  term  encaustic  has  also  been  applied  to  glazed 
tiles  of  the  kinds  which  have  been  described,  and  were  it 
not  already  applied  to  denote  an  antique  process  of  art,  of  a 
perfectly  different  nature,  the  term  would  not  be  inappro¬ 
priate. 

Encaustic  tiles  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  produced  by  a 
method  wholly  distinct  from  that  now  employed. 

The  Norman  tiles  which  have  been  mentioned  are  of  this 


412 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


character ;  the  process  was  commonly  adopted  and  employed 
in  northern  Europe  from  the  twelfth  to  the  fifteenth  century, 
after  which  they  fell  into  disuse. 

The  process  of  manufacture  which,  as  it  is  supposed,  was 
commonly  employed,  may  be  described  as  follows : — 

The  thin  squares  of  homogeneous  clay  having  been 
moulded  and  allowed  to  dry  gradually  until  of  the  proper 
firmness,  a  design  in  relief  was  impressed  upon  them,  leav¬ 
ing  the  ornamental  pattern  in  cavetto ;  into  the  hollows  or 
depressions  thus  left  upon  the  face  of  the  tile,  clay  of  another 
color  was  impressed;  the  clay  usually  employed  for  the  last 
operation  was  white,  or  pipe-clay. 

The  tiles  were  fully  and  carefully  dried,  and  then 
partly  burned,  after  which  they  were  finished  by  cover¬ 
ing  them  with  a  thin  surface  of  metallic  glaze,  which  was  of 
a  slightly  yellow  color,  and,  in  the  subsequent  process  of  fix¬ 
ing  this  glaze  in  the  furnace,  the  white  clay  beneath  the 
glaze  was  tinged,  and  the  red  clay  received  a  more  full  and 
rich  tone  of  color. 

To  facilitate  the  equal  drying  of  the  tiles,  as  well  as  the 
burning,  deep  scorings  or  hollows  were  made  on  the  reverse 
side,  and  in  addition  the  pavement  was  more  firmly  held  to¬ 
gether  by  the  cement,  the  bond  being  much  stronger  for  it. 

The  sizes  of  these  tile  varied  from  about  four  inches  square 
to  six  inches  square,  and  their  ordinary  thickness  was  about 
one  inch. 

It  was  necessary  that  the  shrinking  nature  of  the  clay 
should  be  about  equal,  and  there  is  not  the  least  doubt  but 
that  ingredients  were  used  to  act  as  a  check  upon  the  more 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


413 


fatty  clays,  or  otherwise  most  of  the  designs  would  be  full  ol 
cracks  from  unequal  shrinking,  or  the  surfaces  would  bulge 
and  be  thrown  upwards.  Imperfections  of  these  characters 
are  not  wanting ;  but  their  general  infrequence  would  go  to 
prove  the  employment  of  ingredients  to  equalize  the  shrink¬ 
age  in  drying  and  in  burning. 

Occasionally,  either  from  the  scarcity  ol*  white  clay  of  suit¬ 
able  quality,  in  some  locations,  or  for  the  sake  of  variety, 
glazed  tiles  of  this  character  occur  which  have  the  design 
left  hollow,  and  not  filled  in  according  to  the  usual  process ; 
but  a  careful  examination  of  the  disposition  of  the  ornament 
will  frequently  show  that  the  original  intent  was  to  fill  these 
vacant  cavities,  as  in  other  specimens. 

But  instances  also  occur  where  the  ornamental  design  was 
evidently  intended  to  remain  in  relief,  the  field  and  not  the 
pattern  being  left  in  cavetto. 

Among  some  of  the  oldest  specimens  of  glazed  tiles  em¬ 
ployed  in  England,  may  be  mentioned  the  pavement  dis¬ 
covered  in  the  ruined  priory  church  at  Castle  Acre,  Norfolk, 
a  portion  of  which  is  in  the  British  Museum. 

These  tiles  are  ornamented  with  scutcheons  of  arms,  and 
on  some  appears  the  name  of  “  Thomas.”  They  are  exceed¬ 
ingly  coarsely  executed ;  the  cavities  are  left  unfilled  with 
clay  of  a  different  color,  and  they  are  very  much  inferior  to 
the  Norman  tiles  of  the  same  period. 

It  has  been  stated  that  glazed  tiles  of  superior  make  and 
finish  have  been  discovered  in  the  priory  church  at  West 
Acre,  Norfolk ;  this  priory  wTas  founded  by  Ralph  de  Tony, 
in  the  reign  of  William  Rufus,  for  Canons  of  the  Order  of 
St.  Augustine ;  this  at  the  suppression  was  valued  at  three 


414 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


hundred  and  eight  pounds,  nineteen  shillings,  and  eleven 
pence  half-penny.  There  was  a  close  figuring  for  the  ninth 
pound. 

Malkin’s  process  is  now  largely  employed  for  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  inlaid  as  well  as  plain  tiles ;  dried  slip  in  the  place 
of  soft-tempered  clay  being  used. 

A  brass  plate,  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  is  used  to  pro¬ 
duce  the  pattern,  a  separate  one  being  used  for  each  color. 
Thus,  if  it  consists  of  an  ornament  in  red  and  white  on  a  blue 
ground,  one  plate  is  perforated,  so  as  to  enable  the  red  por¬ 
tion  of  the  clay  powder  to  be  filled  in ;  another  is  cut  for 
the  white  portion,  and  a  third  for  the  blue  ground ;  when 
all  are  filled,  the  tile  is  subjected  to  an  enormous  pressure 
in  a  screw-press,  the  glazing  being  sometimes  done  in  the 
first  firing,  and  sometimes  in  a  separate  operation,  as  has 
been  explained. 

Encaustic  tiles  of  one  color  are  also  now  made  of  dried 
slip ;  these  tiles  are  made  by  subjecting  the  powdered  and 
colored  clay  to  a  great  pressure  in  steel-lined  moulds,  having 
a  raising  plate  bottom  and  an  accurately  fitting  plunger ;  in 
this  way  one  and  one-quarter  inch  of  fine  loose  clay  is  com¬ 
pressed  into  a  little  more  than  one-half  solid  tile. 

Section  II.  The  Manufacture  of  Mosaics  and  Imitation 
Inlaid,  or  Intarsia  Surfaces. 

Mosaics  are  often  formed  with  tiles,  made  as  described  in 
the  last  paragraph  of  Section  I.  of  this  chapter,  in  which  a 
great  variety  of  forms  and  colors  are  employed  to  develop 
the  pattern. 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


415 


The  Russian  artists  have  of  late  years  produced  some 
beautiful  specimens  of  mosaics  in  glass ;  the  pieces  of  every 
shade  and  color  are  technically  called  smalts;  they  are 
generally  opaque,  and  are  set  in  cement  the  same  as  tiles. 

In  Greece,  inlaid  pavements  of  variously  colored  marbles 
were  among  the  sumptuous  decorations  of  the  time  of  Alex¬ 
ander  of  Macedon.  These  were  for  the  most  part  of  fret  work 
or  geometric  patterns,  and  known  as  the  Opus  Alexandrinum , 
but  among  the  earliest  mentioned,  by  Pliny,  are  those  lithos- 
trata  formed  of  colorless  tesseree,  the  work  of  one  Sosos  of 
Pergamos,  whose  master-piece  was  the  “  Asaroton  (Econ”  or 
the  “Unswept  Hall,”  a  representation  of  the  crumbs  and 
fragments  which  would  be  found  on  a  floor  after  a  banquet, 
together  with  a  cantharus  or  two-handled  vase  from  which  a 
dove  was  drinking,  while  others  were  pluming  and  basking 
in  the  sun.  By  the  third  century  B.  C.,  the  art  had  so  far 
advanced,  that,  according  to  Athenieus,  floors  were  laid  down 
in  the  great  ship  of  Hieron  II.  which  were  composed  of  small 
cubes  of  stone  of  every  color,  so  as  to  represent  the  entire 
history  of  the  siege  of  Troy  ;  a  work,  the  execution  of  which 
occupied  three  hundred  workmen  an  entire  year. 

From  Greece,  the  art  was  carried  by  Greek  workmen  to 
Rome,  where  it  was  known  as  Opus  Musivum ,  expressing 
decoration  produced  by  placing  together  small  portions  of 
stone,  marble  or  glass,  colored,  either  naturally  or  by  art. 
It  here  acquired  universal  favor,  and  soon  came  to  be  ap¬ 
plied  not  only  to  floors,  but  to  walls  and  ceilings.  The 
small  pieces  of  which  they  were  composed  (from  their  re¬ 
semblance  to  gamblers’  dice,  were  called  by  the  Romans  tes- 


416  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

seise  or  tessarse,  from  the  Latin  Tesselatum),  were  imbedded 
in  cement  in  accordance  with  a  predetermined  design,  and 
when  the  surface  had  been  thus  smoothed  and  polished,  a 
reproduction  of  the  design  was  there  formed  in  a  material 
as  far  as  possible,  exempt  from  change  or  ordinary  decay. 
Pavements  of  this  description  are  found  wherever  the  Ro¬ 
mans  settled,  no  less  than  in  Rome  itself — in  Asia  Minor, 
Spain,  Gaul,  and  England,  and  not  only  in  large  cities  as  in 
Carthage  or  London,  but  in  the  remotest  villages  and  way- 
side  villas.  Scarcely  a  house  of  any  size  in  Pompeii  appears 
to  have  been  without  its  mosaic  pavement. 

In  the  Middle  Ages,  this  kind  of  work  continued  to  be 
used  in  Italy,  and  some  other  parts  of  the  Continent.  The 
favorite  pattern  in  the  mediaeval  pavements  is  called  “  Opus 
Alexandrinum  which  was  chiefly  used  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries. 

In  England,  it  was  never  extensively  employed,  though 
used  in  some  parts  of  the  shrine  of  Edward  the  Confessor, 
on  the  tomb  of  Henry  III.,  and  the  paving  of  the  choir  of 
Westminster  Abbey,  and  Becket’s  crown  at  Canterbury, 
where  curious  patterns  may  be  seen. 

Mosaic-work  of  all  kinds  is  still  executed  at  Rome  and 
Florence  by  the  Italians,  who  display  great  skill  in  their 
combinations  and  colors. 

Inventions  are  now  being  developed  by  which  mosaics 
can  be  cheaply  worked,  which,  of  course,  while  the  work 
does  not  compare  in  merit  to  that  of  Italy,  and  Russia, 
is  at  the  same  time  suitable  for  many  purposes  of  domestic 
ornamentation. 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


417 


The  contrivance  shown  in  Figs.  200  to  203  is  the  inven¬ 
tion  of  Mr.  Robert  Eltzner,  of  New  York  city,  and  is  for  the 
manufacture  of  mosaic  plates  for  pavements,  wall  ornamen¬ 
tation,  furniture,  and  other  decorative  purposes  from  natural 
and  artificial  material,  such  as  marble,  slate,  porcelain,  majo¬ 
lica,  glass,  jet,  wood,  and  the  like,  so  that  any  desired  design 
can  be  produced  without  the  employment  of  specially  skilled 
hands,  and  thus  very  ornamental  articles  be  furnished  at 
reasonable  prices  for  application  in  the  arts. 

The  invention  consists  of  a  mosaic  tablet  or  plate,  the 
individual  blocks  of  which  are  arranged  face  downward, 
according  to  a  pattern  or  design  on  transparent  paper  that 
has  been  placed  between  two  glass  plates,  so  that  light  can 
fall  through  from  below.  The  blocks  of  mosaic  which  form 
the  plate  are  finally  backed  by  means  of  a  cement,  leaving- 
open  joints,  and  stiffened  with  an  exterior  strip  or  band,  as 
will  appear  more  fully  hereafter. 

Figure  200  represents  a  perspective  view  of  the  table  on 
which  the  mosaic  plate  is  formed.  Fig.  201  is  a  detail  ver¬ 
tical  transverse  section  of  the  same.  Fig.  202  is  a  detail 
side  view  of  a  portion  of  the  table,  both  figures  being  drawn 
on  an  enlarged  scale,  and  Fig.  203  is  a  plan  view  of  a 
mosaic  plate  formed  on  the  table. 

In  carrying  out  the  invention,  a  table  A,  of  the  size  of  the 
mosaic  plate  to  be  formed,  is  supported  on  a  suitable  stand 
B.  The  table  A  is  made  of  an  exterior  iron  frame  A\  and 
of  two  glass  plates  a  and  6,  between  which  is  placed  the 
drawing  of  the  design  which  is  to  be  produced  in  mosaic. 
The  design  is  made  on  transparent  or  translucent  tracing- 
27 


418 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


paper,  which  is  placed  between  the  two  glass  plates  with 
the  face  side  downward,  and  secured  by  gum  to  the  lower 
glass  plate  b.  The  thickness  of  the  covering  glass  plate 
a  increases  with  the  size,  weight,  and  thickness  of  the 
mosaic  tablet  to  be  produced.  Upon  the  top  glass  plate 


n,  a  rectangular  frame  of  upright  glass  strips  c  is  placed, 

the  corners  of  which  are  held  together  by  stout  paper 

» 

strips  pasted  thereto.  Below  the  glass  strips  c  is  placed  a 
layer  of  paper,  which  covers  the  glass  plate  a  outside  of 
the  glass  strips  c,  so  as  to  protect  the  surface  of  the  former. 
Outside  of  the  vertical  glass  strips  c  are  arranged  flat  rubber 
strips  rZ,  also  intermediate  rubber  strips  cZ1,  d 2  between  the 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


419 


glass  plates  a  b  and  frame  A1,  the  rubber  strips  d\  3}  and 
the  clamps  e,  which  are  applied  near  the  corners  of  the 
frame  A1,  holding  the  glass  plates  firmly  in  position  upon 
the  iron  frame  of  the  table.  The  vertical  glass  strips  c  vary 
in  height  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  mosaic  plates 
to  be  formed,  and  serve  as  the  exterior  walls  for  the  cement 
backing  which  is  given  to  the  mosaic  plate.  A  strip  or 
hand  /,  of  galvanized  wire-gauze,  is  placed  in  position  along 
the  inner  surface  of  the  glass  strips,  as  shown  in  dotted  lines 
in  Fig.  201.  The  band  /  should  not  extend  lower  down 
than  the  depth  of  the  joint  between  the  blocks  of  the  plates, 
for  which  purpose,  so  as  to  obtain  the  correct  position  of  the 
band  /,  a  flanged  zinc  strip  f  is  placed  upon  the  glass  plate 
a,  below  the  rubber  strips  d ,  the  zinc  strips  extending  below 
the  glass  strips  c  c  to  the  inside,  its  flange  projecting  upward 
along  their  inner  surface  for  supporting  the  band  /,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  201.  The  individual  blocks  of  mosaic,  what¬ 
ever  be  the  material  employed,  are  now  placed  in  position 
upon  the  covering  glass  plate  a,  according  to  the  design  rep¬ 
resented  on  the  tracing-paper  between  the  plates  b  a.  As 
the  light  passes  through  the  glass  plates  from  below,  it  ren¬ 
ders  the  configuration  and  colors  of  the  design  clearly 
visible,  so  that  the  exact  position  and  color  of  the  blocks 
required  are  clearly  recognized.  One  row  after  the  other, 
from  the  left  to  the  right,  is  successively  placed  in  position, 
the  faces  of  the  blocks  being  gummed,  so  that  they  adhere 
to  the  glass  plate.  If  it  be  desired  to  bring  out  some  por¬ 
tions  of  the  design  in  relief,  the  remaining  portions  have  to 
be  covered  with  square  glass  plates  of  the  size  of  the  block, 


420 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


so  that  the  blocks  placed  thereon  are  set  somewhat  below  ! 
the  blocks  without  glass  plates.  When  all  the  blocks  are 
placed  in  position  according  to  the  design,  the  covering  plate 
a ,  with  the  blocks  remaining  thereon,  face  downward,  is 
removed  from  the  frame  for  being  backed  and  finished,  while 
the  table  itself  is  ready  for  forming  the  next  mosaic  plate. 
For  finishing  the  mosaic  plate,  the  open  joints  between  the 
blocks  are  now  partly  filled  up  with  a  layer  of  fine  sand  to 
the  depth  of  the  joints.  As  soon  as  this  is  done,  a  backing 
g,  of  a  proper  cement,  plaster-of-Paris,  or  other  suitable 
material,  is  spread  into  the  joints  and  over  the  back  of  the 
blocks  until  they  are  covered  to  the  thickness  of  one-eighth 
to  one-quarter  of  an  inch.  A  layer  g  of  wire-gauze  is 
placed  upon  the  cement  and  imbedded  therein,  after  which 
it  is  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  cement,  plaster-of-Paris, 
or  other  material,  to  which,  according  to  the  thickness  of 
the  plate,  sand  or  small  lumps  of  stone  are  added.  As  soon 
as  the  cement  backing  has  sufficiently  set  the  clamping- 
screws  are  unscrewed,  the  paper  strips  at  the  corners  of  the 
glass  strips  c  cut  through,  and  the  latter  removed.  The 
mosaic  plate  is  then  lifted  off  from  the  glass  plate  a,  and 
placed  face  upward  on  a  suitable  setting-plate  for  final 
drying.  The  joints  are  then  cleared  of  the  adhering  sand 
by  means  of  a  brush,  and  the  mosaic  plate  is  finished. 

If  desired,  the  blocks  may  be  connected  in  a  still  more 
reliable  manner  by  means  of  short  metallic  strips,  which 
are  cast  in  by  the  cement  between  the  blocks,  or  by  other 
means,  as  desired.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  the  proper  size  of  the  working-table  to  be  used  is  pref- 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


421 


erably  equal  to  four  square  feet,  so  that  four  mosaic  plates 
each  one  square  foot  in  size  may  be  made  at  the  same  time, 
the  separation  of  the  plates  being  readily  obtained  by  means 
of  a  dividing-cross  of  glass  strips.  If  larger  mosaic  plates 
are  desired,  larger  working-tables  may  be  used.  The  frame 
of  the  table  is  preferably  connected  to  the  supporting-stand 
by  means  of  a  hinged  joint  and  semicircular  guide-rails,  so 
as  to  be  set  into  inclined  position,  by  which  the  passage  of 
the  light  through  the  design  is  facilitated.  If  extra  large 
and  heavy  mosaic  plates  7i  are  to  be  made,  the  lower  glass 
plate  b  is  made  of  several  pieces,  between  which  iron  stiffen- 
ing-rails  are  interposed. 

The  advantages  of  this  improved  method  of  manufac¬ 
turing  mosaic  plates  are  that  any  desired  design  may  be 
quickly  produced  without  the  employment  of  skilled  hands, 
and  that  a  number  of  hands  can  be  employed  at  the  same 
time  to  produce  different  plates.  The  plates  can  be  made 
by  daylight  or  artificial  light,  provided  the  colors  on  the  de¬ 
sign  can  be  properly  distinguished.  As  the  joints  between 
the  blocks  are  open,  a  secure  foothold  is  furnished  when 
used  for  pavements.  The  plates  do  not  require  to  be  made 
of  any  great  thickness,  as  the  inclosing  band  and  interposed 
layer  of  wire-gauze  in  the  backing  impart  to  them  consider¬ 
able  strength  and  thickness. 

Imitation  Inlaid  or  Intarsia  Surfaces. 

The  invention  shown  in  Figs.  204  to  206  relates  to  the 
production,  as  distinctive  articles  of  manufacture,  of  tiles, 
table-tops,  wainscoting,  panels,  work-boxes,  articles  of  furni- 


422  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

ture  of  all  kinds,  and  fancy  or  ornamental  articles  gene¬ 
rally. 

A  mould  or  matrix  is  first  prepared,  of  metal,  slate,  or 
any  suitable  material,  and  of  suitable  size  and  construction, 
in  the  bottom  of  which,  or  in  the  bottom  and  sides  of  which, . 
the  outlines  of  the  ornament  or  ornaments  with  which  the 
finished  article  is  to  be  embellished  are  depressed,  sunk, 
engraved,  or  intagliated.  Into  the  mould  or  matrix  thus 
prepared  is  placed  the  material,  compound,  or  composition 
which  is  to  form  the  base  of  the  manufactured  article.  If 
this  is  to  be  an  ornamental  plaque,  or  a  tile,  for  example, 
clay,  plaster-of-Paris,  or  any  artificial  stone  compound  may 
be  used,  which  is  pressed  into  the  mould,  so  that  the  intag¬ 
liated  lines  in  this  will  appear  upon  the  plaque  or  tile,  when 
this  is  withdrawn  from  the  mould,  as  outlines  of  relief. 

Almost  any  material,  compound,  or  composition  is  capable 
of  being  used  with  and  ornamented  by  this  process,  such  as 
plastic  materials  or  compounds,  stone,  wood,  cast  metal,  or 
any  sheet  metal  or  metallic  foil,  such  materials  as  are  not 
themselves  capable,  on  account  of  hardness,  of  receiving  an 
impression  in  the  mould  or  matrix  being  first  covered  or 
coated  with  a  compound  of  a  soft  or  plastic  nature.  Wood, 
by  being  steamed,  boiled,  or  treated  in  several  other  well- 
known  ways,  is  adapted  for  ornamentation  by  this  process, 
either  plain  or  veneered,  and  with  or  without  a  plastic  coat¬ 
ing  of  varnish,  shellac,  or  any  suitable  paint  composition. 

Fig.  204  is  a  plan  view  of  a  plaque  or  panel  with  an  imi¬ 
tation-intarsia  surface.  Fig.  205  is  a  section  of  the  mould 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


423 


or  matrix ;  and  Fig.  206  is  a  similar  section,  showing  a 
modification  in  the  construction  of  the  mould  or  matrix. 

In  the  treatment  of  some  materials  it  is  desirable  to  con¬ 
struct  the  matrix  in  the  shape  of  rollers,  one  of  which  has  a 
flat  surface,  and  the  other  is  provided  with  indented  or  en¬ 
graved  lines,  which  will  form  the  outlines  in  relief  upon  the 


FIG.  204 


material  passed  between  them.  When  a  hollow  mould  or 
matrix  is  used,  this  may  be  constructed  as  represented  in 
Fig.  206,  that  is,  with  a  raised  or  depressed  part  a,  forming 
either  a  shoulder,  as  indicated  by  the  full  line,  or  a  recess, 
as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines,  at  each  end  of  said  figure, 
which  shoulder  or  recess,  as  the  case  may  be,  surrounds  the 
engraved  or  intagliated  bed  of  the  mould,  by  which  the 
ground  or  real  surface  of  the  article  or  material  to  be  orna¬ 
mented  will  be  exposed  in  its  natural  state.  By  either  of 


424 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


these  methods  a  base  may  be  used  which  consists  of  several 
parts  or  layers,  which  allows  of  an  endless  combination  and 
variety  of  materials  adapted  to  he  used  by  this  process  in  the 
production  of  imitation-intarsia  articles  of  manufacture,  or 
articles  of  any  kind  ornamented  by  this  process. 

After  the  base  has  been  produced  with  lines  in  relief  in 
the  manner  described,  and  the  spaces  within  the  lines  filled 
in  with  enamel,  paint,  or  any  suitable  colored  composition, 
and  the  surface  rubbed  down  smooth,  and  varnished,  if  de¬ 
sired,  as  fully  set  forth,  the  article  so  prepared,  if  of  clay 
and  ornamented  with  mineral  colors  or  enamel,  is  baked  to 
give  it  the  requisite  degree  of  hardness  and  durability  and 
bring  out  the  colors.  The  subsequent  treatment  of  the  or¬ 
namented  articles  will,  of  course,  differ  according  to  their 
nature  and  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  intended ;  but 
the  process  of  producing  the  raised  outlines  and  subsequent 
filling  in  with  coloring  matter  are  in  all  cases  substantially 
the  same. 


Section  III.  American  Tiles. 

The  largest  manufactory  in  this  country  for  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  encaustic  paving  tiles  is  that  of  the  U.  S.  Encaustic 
Tile  Company  of  Indianapolis,  Ind. ;  their  productions  are 
good  and  are  mostly  vestibule  and  paving  tiles. 

Ihe  most  prominent  productions  of  decorative  tiles  are 
those  from  Chelsea,  near  Boston,  Mass. 

The  good  execution  of  designs  in  these  tiles  is  fast  mak¬ 
ing  them  very  popular,  and  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


425 


works  at  Chelsea  are  only  the  advance  guard  of  numerous- 
productive  industries  of  this  country,  which  are  destined 
soon  to  lead  those  of  Europe. 

Nothing  in  the  history  of  pottery  is  so  remarkable  as  the 
progress  which  has  been  made  in  the  manufacture  of  en¬ 
caustic  and  decorative  tiles,  but  especially  in  the  latter,  in 
this  country  since  the  Centennial  Exposition  of  1876 — that 
grand  industrial  event  in  the  history  of  this  country,  so 
creditable  to  Philadelphia  and  Pennsylvania,  upon  which 
city  and  State  almost  the  entire  burden  has,  to  the  perpetual 
disgrace  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  been  per¬ 
mitted  to  fall. 

* 

Sending  tiles  to  Staffordshire  may  seem  to  the  majority 
of  Englishmen  as  a  wild  improbability,  but  ere  long  that 
fact  will  be  established.  One  thing  which  aids  us  is,  the 
tendency  of  English  manufacturers  in  this  line  to  lower  the 
high  standard  of  their  wares  and  produce  something  cheap; 
a  policy  which  is  a  great  error.  Indeed,  this  policy  of  sacri¬ 
ficing  everything,  including  the  actual  producers  themselves, 
to  cheapness,  too  entirely  dominates  the  English  mind, 
with  results  which  have  been  properly  characterized  as 
“cheap  and  nasty,”  and  which  also  causes  the  brutalization 
of  humanity. 

All  true  art  demands  high  standards,  which  must  be 
rigidly  adhered  to ;  seek  to  elevate  them  you  may,  without 
harm ;  but  to  do  aught  to  lower  them  is  but  to  take  a  step 
on  the  road  to  its  destruction. 

Being  at  peace  with  all  the  world,  and  bending  every 


\ 


426  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

.energy  to  develop  to  their  utmost  all  those  arts  and  employ¬ 
ments  belonging  to  a  peaceful,  energetic  people,  possessing 
ample  talent  and  power  of  execution,  we  mean  to  excel  if 
possible  in  all  the  branches  of  pottery  production,  and  meet 
England  in  her  own  field,  feeling  that  we  are  no  longer  de¬ 
pendent,  and  that  henceforth  we  are  competent  in  this  line 
to  care  for  ourselves,  and  although  American  designs  may 
as  yet  be  faulty  as  are  those  of  Europe,  so  long  as  we  have 
the  foliage,  fruits,  beautiful  landscapes,  and  God’s  well¬ 
shaped  animals  to  guide  us,  we  possess  something  equally 
good  from  which  to  draw  inspiration  for  our  designs. 

Much  credit  is  due  in  the  production  of  decorative  tiles 
to  the  arduous  efforts  of  Mr.  J.  G.  Low,  of  Chelsea,  Mass. 

The  art  tiles  manufactured  in  this  country  had  hitherto 

•> 

been  poor  in  both  design  and  execution,  until  Mr.  Low 
turned  his  attention  to  imparting  to  plastic  clay  a  new  cha¬ 
racter  of  artistically  finished  and  pleasing  delineations  of 
animate  forms,  flowers,  and  conventional  ornaments. 

We  possessed  nothing  in  this  line  of  production  that  was 
a  fit  subject  upon  which  we  could  lavish  praise,  or  that  in 
any  way  catered  to  our  finer  feelings.  But  that  period  is 
now  happily  past;  the  exhibition  of  1876  injected  into  us  as 
a  nation  new  conceptions  of  the  ideal,  the  natural,  and  the 
beautiful  in  art. 

Symmetry,  expression,  and  truth  in  no  class  of  composi¬ 
tion  were  generally  appreciated;  among  a  small  proportion 
of  the  cultivated  there  were  of  course  exceptions,  and  I  do 
not  mean  now  that  the  whole  country  has  so  rapidly  been 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


427 


educated  in  this  particular ;  but  do  claim  that  a  much  larger 
number  have  been  drawn  to  give  time  and  study  to  this  sub¬ 
ject,  and  that  the  art  schools  of  Boston,  Philadelphia,  New 
York,  Baltimore,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  other  portions  of 
the  country  have  been  stimulated  to  achievements  which 
are  more  than  simply  creditable. 

The  influences  which  such  institutions  exert  upon  all  the 
arts  and  manufactures  of  our  country  cannot  be  over-esti¬ 
mated;  there  is  no  rule  by  which  it  can  be  computed,  and 
no  basis  upon  which  to  form  a  rule. 

But  that  all  the  purposes  of  civilization,  purity,  and 
religion,  or  the  opposite  effects,  can  be  greatly  aided  or 
retarded  by  the  effects  of  art  there  is  not  the  slightest  room 
for  doubt. 

Eloquence,  high  power  of  analysis,  and  gentle  persuasive¬ 
ness  are  equally  potent  with  delineative  art  in  portraying 
to  the  mind  the  truths  and  principles  which  build  up  and 
strengthen  character,  and  advance  man  in  the  paths  of  pro¬ 
gress  and  industry,  or  that  weaken  and  precipitate  him  in 
the  sea  of  debauchery  and  indolence. 

From  the  earliest  times  man  has  been  enervated  by  such 
grossly  sybaritic  but  artistically  executed  designs,  so  common 
upon  the  tiles  taken  from  the  ruins  of  Pompeii  and  other 
Italian  cities;  the  luring  songs  of  the  siren  have  been  effec¬ 
tive  in  all  ages;  the  downward  path  has  at  all  times  been 
easy  to  travel.  To  impede  this  and  aid  to  combat  it,  art 
has  also  been  employed  in  all  its  forms  for  good.  W  ho  can 
look  upon  the  works  of  the  gifted  and  chosen  contained  in 
Saint  Peter’s,  Westminster  Abbey,  Canterbury,  and  other 


428 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


cathedrals  and  some  of  the  priory  churches  of  western  Eu¬ 
rope,  and  view  their  paintings  and  mosaics  on  dome,  ceiling, 
or  walls,  tread  their  tiled  pavements,  formed  in  all  kinds  of 
beautiful  figures,  bordered  with  flowers  and  traceries  of  vines, 
fruits  and  geometrical  forms,  and  then  fail  to  feel  the  elevat¬ 
ing  influences  of  art  X 

The  effect  of  a  harmonious  design  is  similar  to  a  sweet 
melody ;  it  gently  takes  possession  of  us  before  being  con¬ 
scious  that  we  have  yielded  to  its  influences. 

In  one  plate  we  show  a  few  specimens  of  the  Low  tiles, 
some  singly,  and  others  arranged  in  friezes  and  panels ;  it  is, 
of  course,  not  possible  to  do  full  justice  to  these  designs  in 
so  limited  a  space;  but  there  is  an  easy  grace  and  sponta¬ 
neity  about  them  which  can  hardly  fail  to  afford  pleasure. 

In  other  plates  different  designs  for  chimney-piece  facings 
are  shown,  the  names  given  to  these  facings  being  suggested 
by  the  salient  feature  of  each  design,  “  the  bamboo,”  “  the 
owl,”  and  “Japanese  quince,”  and  the  “lion,”  and  “swag” 
ornament  being  the  predominant  features. 

There  are  peculiar  attractions  in  decorative  tiles ;  pave  a 
hearth,  face  a  chimney  piece  or  jambs  with  them,  then  light 
a  fire  in  the  grate,  and  in  the  winter  evenings  enjoy  the 
magical  effects,  the  changing  play  of  light  and  shadow,  and 
the  various  portions  of  the  designs  relieve  monotony,  and 
exert  a  soothing  influence  upon  all,  and  the  chimney  corner 
becomes  a  home  school  for  refinement  in  thought,  in  feeling, 
and  in  expression. 

Ihe  success  of  Low’s  tiles  has  been  steady,  and  at  the 
same  time  rapid;  for  less  than  a  year  and  one-half  from 


C0PYR10HT  1881  bs  JW.G.LOW 

copyright  isee  ^  j.»j.g.low. 


r  LOW. 


<•  ::  Fdi  LcS  C 


Copyright  188*.  J  a-  J.  3  I»ow  '  Copyright  1863.  J  6-  a  J.  F  bow. 


SWAG 


Aflieriype  Forties  C° 


COPYRIGHT  1881  bq  JW.G.  LOW.  COPYRIGHT  1883  by  J.GAJ.F.  LOW. 
COPYRIGHT  1882  by  J.fiJ.  G.  LOW.  COPYRIGHT  1884  by  J  G&  J.  F.  LOW. 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


429 


the  commencement  of  their  production  we  find  them  in 
competition  with  the  productions  of  the  most  famous  pot¬ 
teries  in  the  world  with  the  results  of  long  experience  to 
guide  the  selection  of  the  articles  exhibited,  as  well  as  a 
large  and  great  variety  in  stock  from  which  to  select,  on 
the  part  of  their  competitors,  while  on  the  part  of  the 
American  tiles,  the  selection  was  hurriedly  made  from  a 
then  meagre  stock,  and  hastily  shipped  to  the  place  of  com¬ 
petitive  exhibition,  which  was  at  Crewe,  England. 

This  exhibition  was  conducted  under  the  auspices  of  the 
oldest  and  most  influential  agricultural  society  in  Great 
Britain,  which  was  the  Royal  Manchester,  Liverpool,  and 
North  Lancashire  Agricultural  Society,  and  the  first  pre¬ 
mium  was  a  gold  medal,  value  J01O,  which  was  awarded  to 
Low’s  exhibit,  and  it  was  for  the  “  Best  collection  of  art 
tiles  of  English  or  American  manufacture ;  hand-painted, 
impressed  or  embossed,  relievo  or  intaglio.” 

The  second  prize,  a  silver  medal,  was  awarded  to  one  of 
the  English  exhibitors,  one  of  the  largest  manufacturers  in 
Staffordshire. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  this  competition  and 
award  of  the  first  medal  occurred  in  less  than  sixteen  months 
from  the  incipiency  of  their  manufacture  of  art  tiles,  and  to 
all  who  are  interested  in  American  art  and  progress  the 
success  of  these  tiles  should  be  a  matter  of  great  congratu¬ 
lation. 

At  the  following  exhibitions,  the  first  medal  was  awarded 
to  these  tiles:  American  Institute  Fair,  New  York,  1880, 
bronze  medal ;  St.  Louis  Agricultural  and  Mechanics  Asso- 


430 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


ciation,  St.  Louis,  1881,  special  award,  silver  medal;  Massa¬ 
chusetts  Charitable  Mechanics’  Association,  Boston,  1881, 
gold  medal. 

Mr.  Low  completed  a  course  of  several  years’  study  in 
Paris,  in  the  ateliers  of  Couture  and  Troujou.  After  this 
time,  for  a  number  of  years,  he  devoted  himself  to  decora¬ 
tive  and  scenic  painting,  in  the  mean  time  becoming  greatly 
interested  in  the  study  of  ceramics. 

He  eventually  turned  his  attention  to  the  study  of  the 
methods  of  tile-making,  and  commenced  at  the  root,  not 
shrinking  from  or  in  any  way  shirking  the  elementary  labor, 
upon  which  so  much  after  progress  in  all  arts  is  due;  he 
spent  a  year  in  the  pottery,  designing  as  well  as  imitating 
shapes ;  but  the  imitative  part  did  not  last  long ;  he  soon 
produced  something  which  bore  the  stamp  of  his  individual 
ideas.  Then  came  the  firing  or  burning  of  the  ware,  the 
erection  of  works  and  kilns,  then  other  and  more  systemati¬ 
cally  conducted  experiments,  born  of  renewed  earnestness. 

Success  crowned  his  efforts.  This  was  not  all  that  had 
to  be  done;  it  is  sometimes  easier  to  produce  a  good  thing 
than  to  find  a  market;  doubtless  all  who  take  interest  in 
such  things  should  at  once  buy  them ;  but  they  do  not,  they 
wait,  one  or  may  be  all  think  them  very  nice ;  but  when  it 
comes  to  the  actual  parting  with  the  money  it  is  altogether 
a  different  thing. 

But  so  good  were  these  tiles  from  the  very  commence¬ 
ment,  and  their  merits  so  extraordinary  and  apparent,  even 
of  those  which  might  be  called  primary,  that  the  well-known 
furnishing  house,  Messrs.  Wellington  &  Burrage,  of  Boston, 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


431 


as  soon  as  possible  closed  a  contract  with  the  Messrs.  Low 
to  take  the  entire  output  of  their  factory. 

This  kind  of  tile  has  everywhere  given  the  greatest  sat¬ 
isfaction  ;  it  does  not  assert  itself  by  a  glaring  misapplication 
of  colors;  brilliant  pictorial  colorings  are  not  in  any  way 
objectionable  when  the  design  is  properly  executed  and  the 
colors  harmonize,  which  is  too  seldom  the  case;  but  the 
Low  tile  resistlessly  attracts  by  the  very  simplicity  and 
beauty  of  the  single  tones  of  glaze  in  which  its  modelled 
reliefs  are  dreamily  suggested,  and  which  appear  like  seem¬ 
ingly  breathing  forms. 

These  tiles  have  won  their  way  by  simple  merit  of  execu¬ 
tion,  while  many  of  the  English  tiles  are  upheld  to-day  not 
from  any  such  cause,  but  simply  upon  the  high  and  often 
inherited  reputation  of  the  house  that  produces  them,  and 
the  heads  of  these  houses  are  not  and  often  have  not  been 
artists,  nor  have  any  of  the  junior  members  of  the  firm  been 
so  educated.  But  to  speak  plainly,  and  I  certainly  hesitate, 
much  preferring  that  some  stronger  hand  than  that  which 
now  grasps  so  feebly  this  pen  would  write  the  words,  I  mean 
that  English  art  in  the  whole  line  of  artistic  pottery  has 
reached  the  highest  point  of  development  that  it  can  ever 
attain  under  the  present  constitution  of  its  society,  and  what 
is  more,  it  has  been  stationary,  but  is  now  on  a  decline. 

The  art  schools  which  are  established  in  many  parts  of 
the  kingdom  may  impede  somewhat  this  fall ;  but  the  ulti¬ 
mate  and  complete  destruction  of  this  branch  of  art  is  but, 
under  the  present  system,  a  simple  question  of  time. 

The  saying  :  “  Once  a  potter,  always  a  potter,”  is  literally 


432 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


true,  and  if  any  interpretation  can  be  put  upon  it,  it 
means  that  they  form  a  separate  class  or  caste.  However 
deserving,  how  many  among  those  decorative  artists  who 
have  reached  the  topmost  points  of  their  professions  during 
the  past  quarter  of  a  century,  have  attained  the  absolute 
control  of  any  decorative  pottery  manufactory  in  England  ? 

How  many  to-day  are  ever  admitted  into  the  different 
firms,  in  any  sort  of  interest  to  entitle  them  to  the  slightest 
control  l 

Alas,  not  one,  and  potters  they  must  stay ;  they  cannot 
break  away  from  the  chains  which  hold  them  in  their  caste ; 
they  cannot  establish  themselves,  no  matter  how  much  merit 
they  possess ;  potters  they  must  live,  and  potters  die,  as  their 
fathers  have  done  before  them. 

In  the  face  of  these  facts,  there  can  be  but  one  result,  or 
all  past  history  is  an  error ;  to  simply  recall  the  effects  of  the 
caste  system  of  Egypt  is  all  that  is  necessary ;  it  has  been 
constantly  the  same ;  it  is  the  great  evil  which  has  always, 
and  everywhere,  been  destructive  to  art  and  progress. 

It  was  the  chief  agent  in  the  decline  of  Egypt ;  it  was  a 
bar  to  any  progress,  and  discouraged  all  attempt  at  improve¬ 
ment  ;  it  crushed  out  personal  ambition,  the  result  being 
dull  uniformity. 

In  Egypt  the  station  of  every  man  for  life  was  fixed  by 
caste,  and  the  individual  could  not  make  his  own  way  and 
fortune  in  the  world,  but  must  follow  the  accident  of  birth, 
and  if  his  father  was  a  potter,  he  must  be  one  also. 

In  England,  of  course,  there  are  no  such  laws  written  in 
the  books  and  enforced,  as  other  legal  enactments,  but  it  is 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


433 


written  and  stamped  into  the  customs  of  society,  and  such 
customs  are  often  of  much  greater  force  than  the  strongest 
legal  measures  could  possibly  make  them. 

Mr.  Low’s  invention,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  surfacing  tile, 
consists  in  the  production  and  preparation  of  the  moulds  for 
embossing  or  indenting  tile  made  of  clay-dust,  to  the  pre¬ 
servation  and  use  of  such  moulds,  to  the  formation  of  under¬ 
cut  figures  by  the  aid  of  such  moulds,  and  to  the  making  of 
compact  homogeneous  clay-dust  tiles,  having  surfaces  orna¬ 
mented  in  relief  or  intaglio  having  texture. 

Figure  207  is  a  plan  of  a  tile  with  an  intaglio  figure 
thereon,  representing  its  use  as  a  mould.  Fig.  208  is  a  plan 


fig.  208 


FIG.  209 

of  a  tile  with  a  figure  in  relief  thereon,  also  representing  its 
use  as  a  mould.  Fig.  209  is  a  cross-section,  illustrating  the 
manner  of  their  use.  Mr.  Low  uses  a  plastic  material,  like 
paraffine,  and  places  it  in  the  tile-frame  of  the  tile-compress- 
28 


434  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

ing  machine,  and  subjects  it  to  pressure,  thus  producing  a  flat 
thin  plastic  plate  of  about  the  thickness  of  a  tile;  or  he 
takes  a  quantity  of  clay-dust  and  similarly  compresses  it,  and 
saturates  this  dust  with  paraffine.  The  upwardly-presenting 
surface  of  this  plate  is  then  plentifully  sprinkled  with  pul¬ 
verized  plumbago,  which  is  compressed  into  the  surface  of 
the  plate. 

The  compressed  plate  may  now  be  engraved  with  any 
desired  pattern,  care  being  taken  to  cover  with  black-lead 
powder,  brushed  on  with  naphtha,  or  any  other  solvent  of 
paraffine  as  a  vehicle,  or  dusted  on  to  a  slightly-warmed 
surface,  or  stippled  on  with  a  stippling-brush.  The  parts 
denuded  by  engraving  can  be  used  as  an  electrotype  mould 
to  make  a  reverse,  and  the  electrotype  used  as  a  matrix  to 
make  an  obverse.  These  electrotypes,  well  backed,  as  when 
used  for  printing,  and  set  in  steel  or  other  strong  boxes  to 
prevent  crush  of  the  backing,  will  serve  as  dies  for  making 
the  intaglios  and  reliefs  for  stamping  tile  in  dry-clay  dust. 

In  case  high  reliefs  are  desired,  the  paraffine  (or  better, 
the  clay  and  paraffine)  plate  may  be  carved,  as  desired,  care¬ 
fully  avoiding  under-cutting,  and  then  covered  with  its 
plumbago  surface,  by  the  naphtha  process  or  stippling,  and 
electrotyped  and  used  as  the  die. 

When  high  reliefs,  which  it  is  desirable  to  undercut,  are 
to  be  made,  the  mould  is  made  so  that  the  compressed  clay 
will  draw,  and  the  main  part  of  the  design  being  thus 
formed,  the  modeller  carves  the  undercutting  by  hand,  the 
clay  being  sufficiently  tenacious  when  compressed  to  allow 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


435 


this,  and  the  finished  tile,  partly  hand-made  and  partly 
machine-made,  is  then  fired. 

For  obtaining  textures,  low  reliefs,  or  intaglios  of  natural 
objects,  and  the  like,  the  inventor  may,  if  he  desires,  use  the 
paraffine  plate  made,  as  has  been  described  above,  with 
plumbago  surface,  for  electrotyping;  but,  instead  of  engrav¬ 
ing  it,  he  forms  an  impression  in  its  black-leaded  surface  by 
the  objects  he  wishes  to  represent,  in  the  manner  hereafter 
described  for  unleaded  paraffine  or  clay-dust.  It  is  prefer¬ 
able,  however,  as  it  gives  great  variety  in  design  with  slight 
expense,  to  adopt  the  following  manipulation :  Having 
formed  the  compressed  plate,  as  already  described,  raise  in 
the  tile-frame  of  the  tile-machine  the  lower  platen  till  the 
upper  surface  of  the  compressed  plate  is  conveniently  near 
the  top  of  the  frame,  and  compose  upon  the  surface,  by  lay¬ 
ing  thereon  bits  of  woven  stuff,  lace,  pieces  of  embossed 
paper,  leather,  or  other  fabric,  leaves,  grasses,  flowers,  or 
other  objects  having  suitable  textures  and  outlines,  such  a 
design  as  will  be  attractive ;  then  lower  the  platen  to  place, 
and  bring  down  the  plunger  with  strong  compression  upon 
the  objects.  By  this  means  they  are  indented  in  outline 
and  texture  in  the  plastic  or  clay-dust  surface,  even  overlays 
being  represented  with  an  accuracy  absolutely  true  to  nature, 
and  always  in  intaglio. 

As  already  said,  this  intaglio  may  be  used  as  a  mould  for 
electrotypes,  when  properly  made,  by  use  ol  pulverized 
plumbago  as  a  surfacing  agent ;  but  the  inventor  usually 
takes  this  matrix  so  made,  and  places  over  it  a  diaphragm 
of  thin  tough  material — a  rubber  film  will  serve,  and  many 


436 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


other  materials ;  but  the  best  and  cheapest  is  the  thin  Japanese 
paper,  of  uniform  texture  and  great  toughness,  such  as  ap¬ 
pears  in  the  Japanese  handkerchiefs  and  napkins,  so  called. 
This  diaphragm  must  exactly  cover  the  surface  of  the 
intaglio.  Upon  it  is  next  laid  the  dust  of  surface  and  body- 
clay  of  the  tile  to  be  embossed,  which  is  subjected  to  com¬ 
pression  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  thereupon,  on  raising  the 
plunger  and  platen,  the  intaglio  and  relief  may  be  separated, 
the  diaphragm  peeled  by  aid  of  a  sharp  tool  to  start  it  from 
the  die,  usually  the  relief,  to  which  it  generally,  if  not  always, 
adheres,  and  the  intaglio  will  usually,  with  proper  care  in 
handling,  be  found  perfectly  uninjured  during  several  hun¬ 
dred  impressions. 

When  the  surface  is  of  one  clay  and  the  body  of  another, 
each  clay  is  to  be  separately  compressed,  unless  sgraffito 
effects  are  desired,  in  which  case  the  surface-layer  must  be 
carefully  applied,  so  as  not  to  cover  the  pattern  desired  to 
be  of  the  color  of  the  body-clay. 

The  sharpness  and  definition  of  texture  of  reliefs  made 
from  dust-clay  intaglios  are  very  remarkable,  and  tile  com¬ 
pressed  from  dust  from  its  homogeneous  quality  is  much 
less  likely  to  warp  or  shrink  unevenly  in  firing  than  any 
other,  particularly  if  packed  in  a  less  fusible  powder,  like 
quartz  grains  or  canister  in  firing,  as  is  not  unusual  with 
terra-cotta  relief-work.  By  these  means  is  obtained  what 
has  long  been  a  desideratum  in  relief  tile-work — a  compact 
homogeneous  embossed  tile  of  uniform  quality  and  slight 
shrinkage— more  surely  than  has  ever  been  done  before. 

It  may  often  be  desirable  to  obtain  in  tile  both  the  relief 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


437 


and  intaglio  of  the  impression  in  the  clay-dust.  In  this  case 
the  relief  can  be  used  upon  the  platen  in  the  same  way  as 
the  intaglio.  Two  of  these  tile,  an  intaglio  and  a  relief, 
may  be  placed  face  to  face  in  the  sagger  for  firing,  and  usu¬ 
ally  will  separate  on  removal ;  but  it  is  best  to  insure  this 
by  leaving  the  paper  diaphragm  between  them. 

In  case  the  design  is  to  be  reproduced  smaller,  the  shrunk 
fired  tile  may  he  black-leaded  and  electrotyped. 

Of  course  these  tile  may  have  their  intaglios  filled  with, 
or  their  reliefs  covered  with,  kiln  colors,  slip,  or  enamel, 
either  while  simply  clay  or  after  firing,  in  any  way  and  at 
any  time  proper  in  tile-making  for  such  application. 

No  good  method  of  fixing  wall-tiles  has  yet  been  con¬ 
trived,  except  those  used  by  the  ancients  of  flanging  or  bev¬ 
elling  the  edges  backward  and  forward  on  alternate  sides  or 
in  alternating  section  on  the  same  side,  or  in  constructing 
them  with  holes  partly  parallel  to  their  surfaces  for  cramps 
or  wires  extending  into  the  plastic  cement,  all  of  which  are 
costly,  and  none  of  which  are  adapted  for  compressed  clay- 
dust  work. 

Lately  on  occasions,  in  wet-clay  work,  undercut  cramp- 
grooves  have  been  made  by  hand ;  but  these  are  costly  and 
inapplicable  to  dust-work. 

Mr.  Low  employs  the  following  means  for  forming  dove¬ 
tailed  grooves  on  the  backs  of  tile :  He  cuts  one  or  more 
pieces  of  wood  of  dovetailed  cross-section  to  such  length 
as  may  be  desirable,  usually  long  enough  to  extend  clear 
across  one  way,  and  lays  them  on  the  platen  of  the  tile- 
machine,  narrow  side  down,  and  fills  in  the  clay-dust  upon 


438  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

them,  or  he  places  them  on  top  of  the  filled-in  dust  narrow 
side  up,  according  as  the  face  of  the  tile  is  to  be  up  or  down. 
In  compression  the  narrow  face  of  the  wood  will  be  level 
with  the  back  of  the  tile,  and  the  clay-dust  will  mould 
round  it.  In  firing,  these  formers  will  burn  out,  leaving 
their  grooves,  and  this,  if  the  wood  be  soft,  light,  and  dry, 
without  much,  if  any,  chance  of  injury  to  the  tile. 

Many  things  may  be  used  as  substitutes  for  paraffines, 
such  as  waxes,  and  compounds  of  waxes,  resins,  gums,  etc. ; 
but  I  have  not  considered  it  requisite  to  enumerate  them,  as 
they  would  clearly  be  equivalents  if  their  qualities  of  tough¬ 
ness,  flexibility,  and  plasticity  resembled  those  of  paraffine. 

The  dust  used  should  be  fine  enough  to  pass  a  one  hun¬ 
dred-mesh  sieve  at  largest. 

Section  IV.  Process  and  Machinery  for  Manufacturing 

Flooring  Tiles. 

The  machine  shown  in  Figs.  210  to  219  is  the  inven¬ 
tion  of  Mr.  George  Elberg,  of  Columbus,  O.,  and  is  for  the 
manufacture  of  flooring  tiles  by  a  new  process. 

He  first  prepares  a  thin  sheet  of  clay  on  paper,  which 
forms  the  finished  surface  of  the  tile-blocks.  The  second 
step  consists  in  the  method  of  cutting  up  the  clay  sheets 
into  suitable  blocks  to  make  the  finished  face  of  the  tile ; 
and  the  third  step  consists  in  the  method  of  combining  the 
clay  sheets  with  a  suitable  body  of  clay  to  be  pressed  and 
burned  to  make  the  finished  tile-blocks. 

Fig.  210  is  a  perspective  view  of  a  machine  for  making 
the  veneered  tile  surface.  Fig.  211  is  a  central  cross-sec- 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


439 


tion,  showing  the  relative  relation  of  the  rollers  shown  in 
Fig.  210;  Fig.  212,  a  side  elevation  of  a  machine  designed 
for  the  second  step  of  the  process;  Fig.  213,  a  front  eleva¬ 
tion  of  the  same.  Fig.  214  is  an  enlarged  side  elevation  of 
the  roller-adjusting  mechanism  shown  in  Fig.  212;  Fig. 
215,  a  broken  section  on  line  x  x  of  Fig.  214;  Fig.  216,  a 
perspective  view,  showing  detached  parts  of  the  treadle 


mechanism  ;  Fig.  217,  a  plan  view  of  the  cutting-dies;  Fig. 
218,  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  cutting-dies  and  follower- 
board;  and  Fig.  219,  an  elevation  of  the  rack  and  pinion. 

A  represents  the  body  or  frame  of  the  first  machine ;  -41, 
the  legs  on  which  the  parts  are  supported.  The  frame  of 
the  machine  may  be  made  of  any  suitable  material,  and 
should  be  substantially  built. 

b  represents  a  pinion  mounted  on  a  shaft  supported  in 


440  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

journals  on  frame  A,  which  is  driven  by  a  belt  D,  running 
over  a  pulley  on  the  end  of  the  shaft  opposite  to  pinion  b. 

Pinion  b  drives  large  gear-wheel  B ,  mounted  upon  the  axial 

* 

shaft  of  roller  c. 

h  represents  a  pulley  on  the  same  shaft. 


f  represents  a  transmitting-pulley,  mounted  on  axial  shaft 
of  roller  F.  This  axial  shaft  of  roller  F  is  journaled  upon 
the  frame  of  the  machine  in  any  suitable  manner. 

H  represents  another  transmitting-pulley,  journaled  to  the 
frame  of  the  machine  on  an  independent  shaft.  Upon  the 
outer  end  of  said  shaft  is  a  transmitting-pinion,  not  shown 
in  drawings,  and  meshing  with  gear  B. 


V 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


441 


ex  represents  a  pulley,  mounted  on  the  axial  shaft  of  roller 
e,  driven  by  a  belt  from  pulley  ff,  as  shown  in  Fig.  210. 

The  paper  may  be  burned  off  in  the  kiln,  or  removed 
after  the  tile  has  been  completed  and  thoroughly  dried  ready 
for  burning,  leaving  an  excellent  finished  surface. 

When  delicate  colors  are  to  be  used,  it  is  preferable  to 
remove  the  paper  before  burning;  but  in  some  cases  the 
paper  will  burn  off  in  the  kiln  without  injury  to  the  color. 

The  thin  sheets  of  clay  formed  on  paper  I  believe  to  be 
a  new  article  of  manufacture.  The  sheets  of  clay  so  pre¬ 
pared  are  united  with  an  additional  body  of  clay.  The 
preferred  process  of  carrying  out  this  part  of  the  invention 
is  described  as  the  third  step. 

The  process  of  making  the  tile-sheet  is  as  follows :  A  bolt 
of  cloth  is  placed  on  roller  E  and  one  end  passed  around 
roller  e,  so  as  to  be  wound,  as  before  explained ;  and  in  a 
similar  manner  a  roll  of  paper  is  placed,  leading  from  roller 
F  to  /',  when  the  machine  is  ready  to  be  started.  Clay 
which  has  been  previously  worked  and  tempered  so  as  to  be 
highly  plastic,  is  placed  in  bats  of  suitable  size  on  the  web 
of  paper  in  front  of  roller  C  c,  which  are  adjusted  so  as  to 
have  the  space  between  three  faces,  the  distance  equal  to  the 
thickness  of  the  sheet  to  be  spread  on  the  paper.  Power  is 
applied  to  the  machine,  when  the  rollers  O  c  spread  and 
press  the  bats  of  clay  placed  on  the  paper  into  a  thin  film 
upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  paper  F,  to  which  it  adheres, 
and  is  wound  with  it  into  rolls  upon  rollers  /',  when  it  is 
ready  for  the  second  step  of  the  process,  which  is  performed 


442 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


by  means  of  cutting-dies,  and  the  inventor  has  devised  the 
following  machine  for  carrying  it  on : — 

M  represents  the  frame  of  the  machine  ;  m  on'  guide- 
standards,  placed  upon  either  side  of  the  machine;  N,  a 
soft-metal  cylinder,  journaled  upon  an  axial  shaft  n.  This 
cylinder  forms  a  cutting-surface  against  which  the  edges  of 
die-knives  are  pressed  in  the  block  cutting. 

N'  represents  sliding  journal-box  frames,  working  in  ways 
or  guides  between  standards  m  on'. 

M'  represents  an  adjusting-screw,  tapping  through  the 
cross-head  of  the  standards  on  on'  and  swivelled  to  the 
journal-box  frame  N' . 

0  represents  a  coiled  spring,  seated  between  the  box  i  of 
the  shaft-journal  and  its  frame  N'. 

g  represents  a  screw-threaded  sleeve,  which  forms  the 
journal  proper  of  shaft  oi. 

g'  represents  a  threaded  bushing,  through  which  the  sleeve 
g  passes. 

J  represents  a  crank-arm,  rigidly  secured  to  the  sleeve  g. 

The  bushing  g'  rests  in  the  journal-box  i.  By  turning  the 
crank-shaft  J  the  roller  N  is  adjusted  laterally  between  the 
standards  on  m\  so  as  to  present  different  surfaces  to  the  cut¬ 
ting-knives. 

O'  represents  a  driving-pulley,  keyed  to  shaft  o. 

P  represents  a  friction-pulley,  mounted  upon  the  opposite 
end  of  said  shaft. 

p  represents  a  lever,  journaled  upon  the  end  of  shaft  o, 
and  having  brackets  or  hangers  Q  Q,  in  the  outer  forked 
ends  of  which  are  journaled  two  small  friction-rollers  q  q\ 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


443 


Rollers  q  q  are  in  frictional  contact  with  the  face  of  roller  P, 
and  serve  as  idlers  when  the  lever  p  is  perpendicular. 

P'  represents  a  second  friction-pulley,  which  is  driven  for¬ 
ward  or  back  as  the  friction-rollers  q  qf  are  brought  alter¬ 
nately  into  frictional  contact  with  pulleys  P  P'  by  means  of 
the  hand-lever  p ,  which  is  moved  to  and  fro  to  secure  the 
desired  direction  of  travel. 

R  R  represent  gears,  keyed  to  shaft  r. 

jS  represents  a  reciprocating  carriage,  working  in  guides 
cut  in  brackets  s  s. 

S  S'  represent  rack-bars,  attached  to  the  under  side  ot 
table  S,  the  teeth  of  which  mesh  with  the  gears  R  to  recip¬ 
rocate  the  carriage  S  backward  and  forward  as  the  lever  p 
moved  to  the  right  or  left.  The  carriage  S  carries  cutting- 
dies  T '  which  may  be  of  any  form  or  shape  to  give  the  de¬ 
sired  configuration  to  the  tile.  I  have  shown  a  form  or  shape 
of  ornamental  tile  of  rectangular  blocks  t  with  pieces  of  right- 
angled  triangular  shape  cut  from  each  of  the  four  corners, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  217,  so  as  to  form  lesser  blocks  between  the 
carriers  of  the  larger  ones. 

T  represents  the  blade  of  the  die-knives,  the  backs  of 
which  rest  on  carriage  S.  Each  of  the  lines  in  Fig.  217 
represents  the  cutting-edge  of  the  die-lmives. 

u  represents  follower-plates  of  the  same  shape  as  the 
blocks  or  die-knives,  resting  on  carriage  S  between  the 
knives  T. 

V  represents  pins  fastened  to  the  follower  plates,  which 
project  through  holes  pierced  in  the  table  S. 


444  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

W  represents  a  post  which  carries  a  platen,  and  is  ope¬ 
rated  by  a  compound  treadle,  W',  pivoted  to  frame  M. 

a  represents  an  arm  rigidly  attached  to  post  W,  which 
carries  the  platen.  This  arm  a  is  pivoted  upon  a  fulcrum- 
rod  y,  and  to  arm  a'  at  s',  the  parts  a,  a.',  y,  and  y'  forming  a 
compound  treadle-lever  by  which  the  platen  W  is  raised. 

The  second  step  of  the  process  is  performed  by  the  appa¬ 
ratus  shown  in  Figs.  212  to  219.  A  roll  of  paper  covered 
with  the  thin  coating  of  clay  formed  by  the  first  step  is 
placed  in  the  forked  standards  M"  and  opposite  the  cylinder 
N.  Carriage  S  is  withdrawn  from  under  cylinder  N,  and  one 
end  of  the  sheet-clay  is  drawn  over  the  cutting-edge  of  knives 
T,  when  the  operator  takes  hold  of  handle  p,  moves  it  for¬ 
ward,  and  brings  friction-pulleys  q  into  contact  with  pulleys 
P  and  P',  which  carries  the  knives  with  the  sheet  of  clay 
under  the  cylinder  N  and  cuts  the  sheet-clay  into  the  desired 
shape  for  tile,  which  blocks  fall  down  and  rest  on  the  fol¬ 
lower.  A  reverse  movement  of  lever  p  will  reciprocate  car¬ 
riage  S  out  from  under  cylinder  N  in  position  for  a  second 
operation,  and  this  is  repeated  until  it  is  necessary  to  remove 
the  blocks  from  the  die-knives,  when  the  operator  places  his 
foot  on  treadle  W ,  and  raises  platen  TF  and  the  follower- 
plates,  which  lift  the  block  out  of  the  dies,  from  which  they 
are  removed  ready  for  the  third  step  of  the  process.  The 
thin  paper  clay  sheets  cut  into  the  desired  shape  of  the  tile 
are  used  to  form  the  finished  surface  of  the  tile.  These 
sheet-blocks  so  cut  are  placed  paper  side  down  in  the  bottoih 
of  moulds  of  the  required  depth,  and  of  an  outline  corre¬ 
sponding  to  the  shape  of  the  cut  sheets  and  of  the  tile.  The 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


445 


clay  or  upper  surface  of  these  sheet-blocks  is  slushed  (moist¬ 
ened)  with  layers  of  moist  clay.  Then  a  block  or  sheet  of 
clay  of  the  corresponding  shape  and  of  suitable  thickness  is 
placed  on  the  slushed  sheet  in  the  bottom  of  the  mould.  A 
coarser  and  less-carefully  prepared  quality  of  clay  can  be 
used  for  this  filling.  The  slushing-layers  cause  the  two  to 
unite  or  adhere  together,  and  they  absorb  the  moisture  of 
the  slushing-layer,  and  become  of  the  same  temper.  The 
blocks  are  then  dried  sufficiently  to  be  pressed.  After  being 
pressed  they  are  dried,  and  then  placed  in  a  kiln  and  burned 
in  the  usual  manner. 

Holler  G  is  mounted  in  sliding  journal-boxes,  working  in 
ways  in  the  frame  of  the  machine,  and  vertically  adjusted 
by  means  of  hand-wheels  /,  keyed  on  screw  rounds  swivelled 
to  the  journal-boxes. 

E  is  a  roll  the  axis  of  which  is  journaled  on  the  bracket  l. 

E'  represents  a  roll  of  cloth,  wound  or  unrolled  from  roller 
E  and  wound  upon  roller  e  by  means  of  the  belt  passing 
over  pulleys  H  e'. 

F'  represents  a  roll  of  paper,  wound  in  a  similar  manner 
from  roller  F  upon  roller  /'.  The  several  rolls  E  e  F  f  are 
journaled  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  readily  detachable  as 
fast  as  webs  of  cloth  or  paper  are  wound  off  of  the  rollers 
E  and  F ,  when  a  new  roll  is  placed  in  position  for  a  similar 
winding. 

The  object  of  this  machine  is  to  prepare  thin  sheets  of 
clay  with  a  finished  face,  which  is  formed  by  being  pressed 
upon  and  adhering  to  paper  F'  by  the  operation  of  rolls 
Gc. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  clay  from  adhering  to  the  upper  roll, 


446 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


fine  muslin  or  other  porous  endless  web  F'  is  caused  to  pass 
between  the  clay  and  the  roller  C.  Paper  is  used  on  which  to 
press  and  roll  the  thin  sheets  of  clay,  for  several  reasons.  It 
gives  a  smooth,  fine  finish  to  the  clay ;  and,  being  flexible, 
allows  it  to  be  wound  into  rolls  as  fast  as  made,  which  is  a 
very  advantageous  form  for  handling  in  the  second  stage  of 
the  process,  and  the  paper  preserves  the  surface  of  the  base 
to  which  it  adheres  while  the  second  and  third  steps — that 
of  cutting  and  uniting  this  thin  sheet  with  another  body  of 
clay  to  form  the  tile — are  being  performed.  It  also  prevents 
the  spreading  of  the  color,  and  preserves  it  intact  in  the  suc¬ 
ceeding  steps,  and  prevents  spotting  or  soiling  of  the  clay 
while  it  is  being  handled  and  dried. 

The  object  of  the  machine  shown  in  Figs.  220  to  228  is 
to  press  the  tile  on  carrier-plates,  which  are  first  oiled; 
then  the  clay  or  tile  blank  is  placed  upon  carrier-plates, 
passed  under  an  oil-roller,  thence  carried  between  dies  and 
into  a  die  box,  where  it  is  subjected  to  pressure  to  shape 
and  form  the  tile,  then  delivered  out  of  the  dies  by  the 
automatic  and  intermittent  action  of  the  machine  driven  by 
power,  the  motion  of  the  machine  being  imparted  by  means 
of  an  oscillating  shaft,  from  which  shaft  all  parts  of  the  ma¬ 
chine  primarily  take  their  motion  to  successively  carry  out 
the  various  steps  of  the  operation. 

Fig.  220  is  a  side  elevation  of  machine  for  oiling  the  car¬ 
rier-plates  ;  Fig.  221,  an  end  elevation  of  the  same.  Fig. 
222  represents  the  carrier-plate.  Fig.  223  is  a  perspective 
view  of  the  pressing-machine ;  Fig.  224,  an  end  elevation  of 
the  same;  Fig.  225,  a  plan  view  of  the  reversing-gear ;  Fig. 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


447 


226,  a  longitudinal  section  on  line  x  x  Fig.  224 ;  Fig.  227,  a 
detail  view  of  one  of  the  outside  eccentrics  operating  the  die- 
arms;  Fig.  228,  a  detail  view  of  die-arm  with  die  removed. 
A  A 1  A 2  represent  the  frame  of  apparatus ;  d1,  an  endless 


fig.‘222c 

■jic«  y 

Fig.  223 


carrier  travelling  over  pulleys  a  a;  a2,  carrier-blocks  se¬ 
cured  to  belt  a1 ;  B  b,  a  ratchet  and  pawl ;  B\  a  belt  con¬ 
necting  pulley  b 1  to  driving-pulley  B 2,  rigidly  secured  to 
shaft  S. 


448  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

C  is  a  roller  covered  with  sheep’s  pelt  or  other  porous 
substance  designed  to  hold  oil ;  c,  the  travelling  plates,  on 
which  is  placed  the  clay,  c1  are  depending  legs  or  hooks 


engaging  with  the  carrier-blocks  a2;  c2,  angle-irons,  which 
act  as  ways  for  plates  c.  The  plates  c  are  placed  upon  the 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


449 


| 

f' 


angle  irons  or  ways  c2,  then,  by  means  of  the  carrier-blocks 
a2,  are  carried  under  roller  C,  which  oils  the  surface.  When 
they  reach  the  other  end  of  the  machine  they  are  taken  off 
by  the  operator  and  blanks  of  clay  placed  upon  them,  when 
they  are  ready  for  the  second  step. 

D  represents  the  framework  of  the  pressing  -  machine ; 
E  E\  driving-belt  pulley-wheels,  running  in  opposite  di¬ 
rections,  and  mounted  upon  sleeves  h,  loosely  rotating  on 
shaft  e. 

E 2  represents  a  pinion  mounted  upon  a  sleeve  tight  upon 
shaft  e. 

E 3  represents  a  quadrant-gear  having  teeth  meshing  with 
those  of  pinion  E 2,  and  mounted  upon  and  keyed  to 
shaft  S. 

F  represents  a  shifting-lever,  and  /  a  shifting-frame  for 
moving  the  sleeves  h  laterally  upon  shaft  e ;  G  G\  clutch- 
teeth  on  the  ends  of  the  sleeves  h  h ,  which  engage  with 
similar  teeth  upon  either  end  of  clutch  h!. 

q  q’  represent  clutch-gears  upon  the  inner  hubs  of  the 
pulleys  E  E'  and  the  outer  ends  of  the  clutches  h,  so  as  to 
allow  the  lateral  movement  of  either  of  clutches  7i  to  engage 
with  clutch  h!  for  communicating  motion  from  either  of  the 
pulleys  E  E'  to  pinion  E 2. 

H  represents  a  roller  covered  with  porous  substance,  simi¬ 
lar  to  roller  (7,  for  oiling  the  top  of  the  clay  out  of  which 
the  tile  is  to  be  formed. 

L  E  indicate  a  compound  link-lever,  operated  by  shaft  S 
by  means  of  the  crank-arm  P  in  the  manner  hereafter  de¬ 
scribed. 

29 


450 


BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 


X2  l  T  rrt  indicate  reciprocating  adjusting  mechanism  con¬ 
nected  to  the  adjusting-plate  m,  which  travels  on  angle-iron 
ways  M'.  Lever  X2  is  pivoted  to  the  frame  of  the  machine 
at  s  and  connected  by  a  slotted  link  T  to  the  crank-arm  Z, 
secured  to  the  shaft  S. 

M"  indicates  angle-iron  ways  on  the  opposite  end  of  the 
machine,  on  which  plate  c  travels  after  being  acted  upon  by 
the  dies. 

M  indicates  angle-iron  ways,  which  are  elevated  in  a 
plane  above  the  ways  M\  so  as  to  allow  the  adjusting-plate 
m  to  pass  under  the  carrier-plate. 

n  n  are  adjusting  or  centering  triggers. 

0  is  the  casing  or  die  box  to  hold  die-plates  in  pressing; 
0\  the  top  face  of  the  plunger  piston;  o,  the  clay  or  tile- 
blank  ;  P,  the  upper  die-plate ;  P',  vertically-sliding  arms 
secured  to  plate  P. 

P2  represents  guides,  which  are  grooved  to  receive  arms, 
P'. 

IT  I"  i  represent  a  crank-lever  and  eccentric  mechan¬ 
ism  ;  X,  a  slot  in  the  frame  of  the  machine. 

When  the  operator  removes  the  plates  from  the  machine 
shown  in  Figs.  223  and  228,  and  fills  them  with  blanks  of 
clay,  he  places  one  upon  ways  M  and  pushes  it  forward 
under  the  roller  H  to  oil  the  top  of  the  blank  to  prevent  its 
sticking  to  the  die.  Meanwhile  the  quadrant  E2  oscillates 
to  the  right,  carries  arm  Z  in  the  direction  shown  by  the 
arrow,  thus  drawing  link  T  in  the  same  direction,  and  throw¬ 
ing  arm  X2,  pivoted  at  s,  to  the  right.  This  carries  the  ad¬ 
justing-plate  m  with  it  back  under  the  ways  M  upon  ways 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


451 


ilX',  as  shown  by  dotted  lines,  Fig.  226,  so  that  when  the 
plate  c,  with  clay  o,  passes  out  from  under  roller  H ’  and 
drops  down  upon  ways  M'  the  adjusting-plate  m  will  be  in 
the  rear  of  it.  When  the  shaft  S  rotates  in  the  opposite 
direction,  the  motion  is  reversed  and  the  plate,  with  the  tile- 
blank,  is  shoved  along  ways  M '  between  the  dies.  When 
the  shaft  S  rotates  to  the  right,  the  arm  Z2,  operating  link 
X',  draws  arm  X  downward.  At  the  same  time  the  arm  X, 
travelling  to  the  left,  operates  arm  X',  thus  rotating  eccentric 
X2,  and  allowing  the  press-beam  K  to  drop  down  in  slot  X 
Both  ends  of  the  arm  X  move  down  without  changing  the 
inclination  and  in  unison  with  press-beam  K,  so  that  when 
press-beam  K reaches  the  bottom  of  the  slot  X,  the  inclination 
of  arm  X  is  unchanged.  The  plunger  Q,  resting  upon  roller 
r,  journaled  in  beam  XX,  drops  with  said  beam.  As  soon  as 
the  plunger  Q  begins  its  downward  motion,  the  arms  N 
engage  with  triggers  n  and  operate  them  so  as  to  close  upon 
the  plate  c  and  centre  it  upon  the  plunger,  when  it  is  ready 
for  the  pressure.  When  the  plunger  and  beam  K  drop, 
they  carry  the  top  die  P,  and  arms  P'  down,  and  this  motion, 
by  means  of  arm  X,  pivoted  to  the  frame  of  the  machine 
and  to  the  eccentric  Z,  rotates  the  eccentric,  as  shown  by 
arrow,  and  throws  arm  P'  down,  so  as  to  draw  the  top  die 
P,  down  upon  the  clay.  These  motions  are  all  simultaneous 
with  the  downward  motion  of  the  plunger  Q.  After  the 
beam  K  reaches  the  bottom  of  slot  X,  by  the  continued 
downward  motion  of  the  link  X'  and  arm  X,  the  roller  ?•' 
is  brought  to  act  upon  the  inclined  bottom  of  plunger  Q , 
and,  travelling  to  the  right,  raises  plunger  Q  so  as  to  lift 


452  BRICKS,  TILES,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

plunger  Q  up  and  press  the  clay  between  the  dies  0 2  and  P, 
and  form  on  the  surface  any  desired  ornamental  figures  or 
ribs  conforming  to  the  face  of  the  dies.  When  the  quad¬ 
rant  F3  has  revolved  far  enough  to  the  right  to  cause  these 
motions  to  be  performed,  they  are  stopped  by  means  of  a 
lug  g'  upon  its  periphery  engaging  with  the  bracket  as 
shown  in  Fig.  225,  throwing  the  frame  f  over,  so  as  to  cause 
clutch-sleeves  li  to  slide  upon  shaft  e  and  throw  loose  sleeves 
of  wheel  Er  out  of  engagement,  and  at  the  same  time  that 
of  wheel  E  into  engagement  with  the  other  end  of  the  sleeve 
h\  thus  reversing  the  motion  of  the  quadrant,  and  with  it 
the  motions  of  the  various  levers  and  arms  before  described. 
Lever  F  is  moved  to  the  right  or  left,  so  that  sleeves  h  may 
be  thrown  out  of  or  in  gear  at  any  period  of  the  operation 
of  the  machine,  and  the  motions  instantly  reversed  at  the 
will  of  the  operator.  In  order  to  allow  the  operator  to  stop 
the  machine  at  any  point  of  its  operation,  the  sleeves  h  h 
are  set  far  enough  apart  to  allow  the  clutch-sleeve  h!  to 
rotate  freely  between  them.  Lever  F  and  frame  /  are 
attached  to  clutch-sleeves  h  h ,  so  that  both  may  be  disen¬ 
gaged  from  the  clutch-sleeve  h'  by  a  partial  throw  of  lever  F \ 
as  shown  in  Fig.  225,  or  the  motion  may  be  at  any  time  re¬ 
versed  by  a  full  throw  of  the  lever.  The  die  is  emptied, 
and  the  machine  set  for  a  second  operation  by  reversing  the 
motion  by  lugs  e'  g' .  The  beam  K,  being  raised  by  means 
of  the  eccentric  P,  carries  the  arms  P',  together  with 
the  eccentric  t  upward,  and  because  the  link  or  arm  T  is 
pivoted  to  the  frame  of  the  machine,  arm  T  draws  the  eccen¬ 
tric  over  to  the  right  until  it  resumes  the  position  shown  in 


ORNAMENTAL  TILES,  ETC. 


453 


the  drawings,  Fig.  227,  thus  raising  arms  P'  so  as  to  lift  the 
upper  die  P  clear  of  the  clay,  and  above  the  plane  of  its 
travel,  which -allows  the  pressed  tile,  together  with  the  plate 
c  upon  which  it  rests,  to  be  pushed  forward  on  ways  M2  by 
the  next  succeeding  plate,  as  shown  in  Fig.  223.  These 
motions  are  repeated  automatically  and  successively,  render¬ 
ing  the  management  of  the  machine  very  simple  and  easy. 
When  the  tiles  pass  out  of  the  die  upon  the  ways  M2  they 
are  taken  by  the  operator  and  emptied,  and  the  plates  c 
placed  upon  the  ways  of  the  machine  (shown  in  Fig.  220), 
when  the  same  operations  are  repeated. 

The  machines  shown  in  Figs.  220  and  223  are  placed  side 
by  side,  the  pulley  B 2  being  mounted  upon  and  driven  by 
the  same  shaft  /S,  as  quadrant  E3.  The  legs  or  hooks  d  on 
the  bottom  of  plate  c  serve  as  handles  for  the  operator  to 
remove  them  from  and  replace  them  upon  the  machine. 
The  pulley  b'  is  attached  to  the  shaft  of  pulley  a  by  any 
usual  clutch  device,  which  allows  it  to  run  backward  as  an 
idler,  when  shaft  S  moves  to  the  right.  When  the  motion 
of  shaft  S  is  reversed,  ratchet  and  pawl  B  b  checks  the 
backward  movement  of  the  carrier  belt  or  apron. 


INDEX 


Abaquesne,  Masseot,  some  of  his  works, 
405 

Aberdeen,  materials  used  in  building 
in,  29 

Acoustic  effects  of  damp  walls,  1G7 
Adams,  Thos.  F.,  of  Philadelphia,  im¬ 
provement  in  kiln  roofs,  160-1 G3 
Adobes,  definition  of,  G4 

how  reduced  to  permanent  plasti¬ 
city,  64 

of  Egypt,  the  effect  of  being  burn¬ 
ed,  even  at  this  date,  313 
well  preserved  in  Egypt,  India, 
and  other  countries,  23 
where  mostly  used,  64 
Agrolas,  23 
Ahasuerus,  395 

Aiken,  Henry,  of  Philadelphia,  illus¬ 
tration  and  detailed  description  of  his 
improved  clay-pit,  118-122 
Ainslie  machine  for  making  drain-pipes 
improved,  now  largely  used,  355 
Air  in  kilns,  diffusion  of,  285 
Alfred  the  Great,  no  bricks  in  exist¬ 
ence,  dating  from  his  time,  27 
Alkaline  salts  in  clays,  313 
Alumina  in  fire-clay,  253 

silica,  etc.,  average  amount  of  in 
best  fire-clays,  233 

Aluminium  hydrate,  its  valuable  ab¬ 
sorptive  power,  243 
Amboy  clay,  250 

America,  first  brick  building  in,  erected 
under  Wouter  Van  Twiller,  29,  30 
American  building  bricks,  variation  in 
sizes  of,  65-67 

industries  and  finances,  condition 
of,  immediately  after  the 
Revolution,  34 

effect  of  the  war  of  1812  in 
developing,  41 

patents  first  granted  by  the  State- 
Department,  41 
tiles,  424-438. 


Amsterdam,  City  Hall  of,  when  re¬ 
built,  29 

good  quality  of  bricks  from,  30 
Anderson,  Jas.  C.,  of  Chicago,  Illinois, 
invention  for  ornamentation  of  bricks, 
84-86 

Anglo-Saxons,  buildings,  of,  26 
Arabians  in  Spain,  glazing  in  fixed 
colors  derived  from,  397 
Arches,  fire-brick,  243 
Architects,  duties  of,  to  their  clients  and 
the  public,  168 

Art  schools,  their  excellent  influence 
upon  public  taste,  427 
Asaroton  CEcon,  or  “  Unswept  Hall,” 
masterpiece  of  Sosos,  415 
Ashes,  injury  from  being;  mixed  Avith 
brick-clay,  67 

Assyria,  profuse  use  of  colors  in  deco¬ 
ration  in,  328 

Athens,  walls  of,  built  of  brick,  23 

Babel,  ToAver  of,  bricks  used  in  build¬ 
ing,  19 

Babylon,  bricks  in  the  walls  of,  19 

decorated  bricks  found  in  the  Avails 
of,  397 

records  of,  in  terra-cotta,  297 
Avails  and  palaces  of,  faced  Avith 
burned  bricks,  24 

Babylonish  architecture,  colored  deco¬ 
ration  in,  20 
bricks,  colors  of,  20 
sizes  of,  20,  21 

Baltimore,  quality  of  bricks  of,  45 
Barrows,  tile,  353,  354,  394 
Becket’s  croAvn  at  Canterbury,  416 
Belgium,  great  care  taken  in,  to  make 
a  perfect  clay  mixture,  239,  240 
Belt  for  elevating  clay,  176 
Berlin,  use  of  light  bricks  in,  62 
Bessemer  convertors,  lining  for,  246 
Birs  Nimrod,  supposed  site  of  Babylon, 
mounds  of  bricks  at,  19 


456 


INDEX 


Bischof  and  Aron,  their  explanations  of 
plasticity  and  shrinkage,  243,  244 
Blashfield,  Mr.,  experiments  of,  with 
inlaid  pavements,  407,  408 
Mr.,  of  Stamford,  England,  mix¬ 
ture  of  clays  by,  307 
Blast  furnaces,  destruction  of  fire-bricks 
in,  236-238 

requirements,  as  to  fire-bricks 
in  building,  238,  239 
Blue  brick,  definition  of,  98 

bricks,  their  use  in  England  and 
Netherlands,  98 

Blyth,  Captain  Walter,  efforts  in  1652 
for  land  drainage,  356 
Board  of  Trade,  British  power  of,  to 
compel  a  patentee  to  grant  licenses, 
39,  40 

Bodiam  Castle,  Sussex,  fireplaces  in, 
301 

Borax,  its  use  in  intensifying  colors, 
96,  97 

‘‘Bossing,”  how  performed,  89,  90 
Boston,  bricks  not  much  used  in,  in 
early  times,  33 

erection  of  first  “Towne  House” 
in,  33 

erection  of  the  “Old  State 
House,”  33 

first  Episcopal  Church  in,  33 
Terra-cotta  Company,  work  done 
by,  309 

the  “  Triangular  Warehouse,”  one 
of  the  earliest  brick  buildings  in, 
33 

Boulton  &  Worthington  process,  408, 
409 

“  Breeze,”  its  nature  and  use,  57 
Brick  and  tile  machine,  Centennial 
Tiffany  combined,  198 
machines,  classification  of 
U.  S.  Patent  Office,  166 
blue,  definition  of,  98 
building  after  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution,  improvement 
in.  34 

prior  to  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution,  34 

burning  London,  offensive  fumes 
from,  67 

clays,  components  of  best,  46 
construction  in  time  of  Henry  VI. 

in  England,  27 
Hinas  fire,  234,  235 
driers,  210 


Brick — 

drying  shed,  improved,  129-135 
house  to  be  built  in  1685;  price 
stipulated  for,  32 
size  of,  as  ordered  by  William 
Penn,  32 

Brick-kiln,  illustration  and  detailed  de¬ 
scription  of  kiln  invented  by 
Wm.  H.  Brush,  of  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  156-160. 
kilns  for  burning  coal,  descrip¬ 
tion  of,  144,  145 
temporary,  156-160 

Bricklayers,  wages  of,  in  Philadelphia 
in  1  705,  32 

Brick-machine,  Chambers’s  tempered 
clay,  200-210. 

Gregg’s  triple  pressure,  1 79— 
181 

manufactured  by  W.  E.  Tail- 
cot  &  Co.,  Croton  Landing, 
N.  Y.,  188-190 
of  Geo.  S.  Selden  and  John 
N.  McLean,  of  Philadel¬ 
phia,  181-188 
of  Isaac  Gregg,  Jr  ,  188 
“Peerless,”  i 99,  200 
machines,  164-230 

defects  of  early,  41,  42 
early,  description  of,  41,  42 
first  class,  164 
how  classed,  164 
of  W.  E.  Tallcot  &  Co., 
prices  of,  190 
second  class,  164 

Brickmakers,  earliest  settlement  of,  in 
LTnited  States,  30 
of  London,  where  their  sand  is  ob¬ 
tained,  58 

Brickmaking,  ancient,  perfection  of,  22, 
23 

discouragements  of  early  attempts 
at,  in  the  United  States,  34 
in  ancient  Egypt,  a  royal  mono¬ 
poly,  21 

in  England,  56-58. 
in  times  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Eliz¬ 
abeth,  27 

no  science  of,  148,  149 
progress  of,  18 

the  knowledge  of,  when  lost  in 
Western  Europe,  26 
various  stages  of,  102 

Brick-moulds,  regulations  of  ordinance 
1820  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  66 


INDEX. 


457 


Brick — 

press,  Carnell’s,  226,  227 

John  Crabtree’s  “Peerless,” 
227,  229 

Miller’s,  225,  226 
of  Isaac  Gregg,  Chicago,  Ill., 
225 

pug,  55,  56 

Bricks,  a  choice  building  material,  31 
adaptation  of,  made  by  ma¬ 
chines  of  the  first  class,  165 
American,  of  to-day,  superior  to 
all  others,  35 

variation  of  sizes  of,  65-67 
and  tiles  made  in  Maracaibo, 
60 

application  of  the  term,  64 
best  ornamental  produced  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  45 

best  quality  of,  how  made  near 
London,  56 
blue,  98-100 

best  fuel  for  burning  them,  1 00 
clays  best  for  their  manufac¬ 
ture,  98 

how  to  color  them,  99 
kilns  for  burning  them,  99 
materials  for  making,  99 
soft  coal  not  suited  for  burn¬ 
ing,  99 

buff-colored,  produced  by  mixing 
ground  chalk  with  ferruginous 
clays,  256 

building,  made  at  Utrecht,  58 
tests  of  the  quality  of,  22 
burned,  average  weight  of,  70 

pulverized  and  made  into  ce¬ 
ment,  64 

burning  a  kiln  of,  with  coal,  144- 
151. 

of,  by  various  processes,  148 
by  machinery,  steps  of  process  of 
manufacturing,  168 
by  the  hand  process,  manufacture 
of,  101-163. 

“clamped,”  57 

coal  required  to  burn  1000,  150 
cohesive  force  of,  70 
colored  in  the  ornamental  archi¬ 
tecture  of  the  Middle  Ages,  22 
common,  how  classified,  70 
decorated,  found  the  walls  of  Bab¬ 
ylon,  397 

difference  between  dry  and  damp 
clay,  169 


Bricks — 

enamel,  processes  for  preparing  and 
applying  to,  78-84 
enamelled,  found  in  the  ruins  of 
Babylon,  20 
English,  qualities  of,  67 
sizes  of,  67 

facing,  shape,  and  how  laid,  25 
failure  of  the  first  attempt  to  pro¬ 
duce  at  New  Haven,  31 
first  application  of,  attributed  to 
Hyperbius  of  Crete,  and  Eury- 
alus  or  Agrolas,  23 
first  burned  in  the  United  States 
in  1650,  31 
floating  on  water,  61 
for  aqueducts,  reservoirs,  etc.,  74 
for  sanitary  purposes,  75 
from  Amsterdam,  good  quality  of, 
30 

from  dry  clay,  a  wrong  principle, 
177 

from  untempered  clay,  defects  in, 
74 

from  weak  clays,  how  affected, 
65 

glazed  or  made  water-proof,  75 
“green,”  58 

definition  of,  64 

hand  and  machine-made,  how 
affected,  65 

hand-made,  difference  in  sizes  from 
wearing  away  of  the  moulds,  65 
history  of,  17-43 

analogous  to  civilization,  1 7 
hollow,  355 

how  assorted  after  leaving  the 
kiln,  70 

how  made  and  named,  23 
how  to  color  under  the  glaze,  77 
how  used  by  the  Romans,  26 
in  England  at  the  time  of  Alfred 
the  Great,  27 

in  the  District  of  Columbia,  high 
standard  of,  101 

in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  24 

in  the  fourth  century,  size  of,  25 
layers  of,  in  making  panels,  24 
light,  for  church  ceilings,  62 
light,  poor  conductors  of  heat, 
made  by  Fabroni,  61 
limit  of  absorption  of,  167 
little  attention  given  to  improve¬ 
ment  in  making  until  1840,  41 


458 


INDEX. 


Bricks — 

made  by  dry-clay  machines,  infe¬ 
riority  of,  165 

made  by  dry-clay  machines,  pre¬ 
caution  to  be  taken,  73 
made  by  dry-clay  machines  sel¬ 
dom  satisfactory,  73 
made  from  clay  mixed  with  ashes, 
67 

made  from  strong  clays,  properties 
of,  65 

made  on  Hudson  River,  poor  qua¬ 
lity  of,  69 

mixtures  for  colors  of  ornamental, 
78 

mostly  imported  from  England 
until  the  outbreak  of  the  Revo¬ 
lution,  33 

not  used  in  architectural  works  in 
Greece,  23 

now  made  in  London  inferior  to 
those  of  earlier  times,  58 
ornamental  designs  for,  93,  94 
ornamental,  how  designs  and  colors 
are  produced,  76 

ornamentation  of,  by  Jas.  C.  An¬ 
derson,  of  Chicago,  111.,  84-86 
partly  burned,  soon  decay,  19 
paving,  made  at  Moor,  South  Hol¬ 
land,  58 

pressed,  how  made,  221-223 
pressed,  how  set  in  the  kilns, 
223,  224 

pressed  or  front,  how  made,  69 
price  of,  in  Philadelphia  in  1705, 

32 

process  of  drying,  126-135 
properly  burned,  how  to  obtain, 
256 

quality  of,  made  by  the  Dutch,  30 
silicious,  Khern’s  process  for  mak¬ 
ing,  247,  248 
specific  gravity  of,  70 
subject  to  taxation  under  George 
III.,  28 

tested,  condition  of  clay  in  when 
moulded,  72 
test  of  absorption,  167 
tests  made  by  Gen.  M.  C.  Meigs, 
71,  72 

their  least  crushing  pressure,  70 
their  size  regulated  by  Charles  I., 
28 

their  sizes,  strength,  and  other  qua¬ 
lities,  64-75 


Bricks — 

tiles,  etc.,  different  forms  of,  191, 
192 

ultimate  strength  of  various  kinds, 
70,  71 

unfavorable  comparison  of  early 
American  with  Dutch  and  Eng¬ 
lish  bricks,  35 

walls  covered  with  “  saltpetring,” 
48 

“washed,”  description  of,  127 
which  have  stood  the  highest  test 
in  the  United  States  or  Europe, 
73 

with  colored  glazed  surfaces,  75 
Brick-work,  chromatic  colors  mostly 
used  in,  76 

ornamental  and  polychrome, 
revival  of  the  taste  for,  22 
Roman,  deterioration  of,  26 
the  crowning  period  of,  26 
when  it  became  common  in 
the  United  States,  33 
Brixworth,  England,  Roman  bricks  at, 
27 

Brogniard,  formula  of  fire-clay,  234 
Brush,  Wm.  H.,  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
improvement  in  brick-kilns,  156-160 
Buff  color  in  terra-cotta,  difficulty  of 
obtaining,  323 

Buff-colored  terra-cotta  sometimes  ob¬ 
tained  by  mixing  ground  chalk  with 
ferruginous  clays,  256 
Building,  loss  in,  by  decrease  in  size  of 
bricks,  65,  66 

Buildings,  public,  evils  from  a  too  hasty 
construction,  167 

remains  of,  in  England  between 
Roman  times  and  the  13th  cen- 
.  tury,  26 

Burlington,  N.  J.,  brick  house  in,  built 
for  Hannah  Psalter,  31 
Burning  a  kiln  of  bricks  with  coal,  144- 
151 

fire-brick,  256 
terra-cotta,  323,  324 

time  required  for,  324 
“Burnishing,”  91 

Byzantium,  influence  of,  on  art  in  Eu¬ 
rope,  397-399 


Calamine,  zinc  made  from,  by  Dr.  Law 
son,  of  Scotland,  242 
Calcining  kilns,  286 


INDEX. 


459 


Camp,  Horace  B.,  illustrations  and  de-  ' 
tailed  descriptions  of  pipe-machines 
invented  by, 378-383 
Canaan,  cities  of,  walls  of,  18 
Canada,  clays  of,  45 
Canterbury,  mosaic  pavement  at,  416 
Carbonaceous  matter  in  clay,  53 
Carnell,  Geo.,  hand-press  of,  276 
press,  226,  227 

stamping  mill  for  fire- clays,  262, 
263 

Carrier,  Tile,  Dodd’s  improved  for 
horizontal  tile-machines,  384-386 
Caste,  influence  of,  in  causing  a  decline 
in  art,  431,  432 
Ceilings,  etc.,  fire-proof,  62 
Cement  for  coating  fire-proof  columns, 
287 

from  powdered  burned  bricks,  64 
terra-cotta,  304 
to  prevent  saltpetring,  28  7 
Centennial  Exposition,  industrial  influ¬ 
ence  of,  425 

Tiffany  combined  brick  and  tile- 
machine,  198 

Chaldea,  glazed  enamelled  coffins  used 
in,  400 

history  of  in  terra-cotta,  297 
Chaldean  tombs,  drainage  in,  358 
Chambers,  Bro.  &  Co.,  Drier,  control¬ 
led  by,  210-216 
Philadelphia,  compound  clay 
rolls  of,  194,  195 

tempered  clay-brick  machine,  200- 
210 

Charles  I.,  regulation  of  size  of  brick 
by,  28 

“  Chateau  de  la  fa'ienc6e,”  tiles  at,  405 
“Checking,”  how  to  prevent,  55 
Chelsea,  Mass.,  decorative  tiles  from, 
424 

Chicago,  quality  of  clay  used  in,  45 
Chimney  caps  of  terra-cotta,  303 

shafts,  ancient  and  modern,  302  j 
clustered,  302 
finishing,  303 

China,  glazing  in  fixed  colors  in,  397 
Cinders,  use  of  in  brick-making  in 
England,  57 

Clamp  burning,  injurious  effects  of,  on 
health,  67  j 

Clamping,  how  the  clay  is  mixed  for, 
57 

Clark.  DeciusW.,  enamel  invented  by, 
78  : 


Clay,  ancient  manner  of  tempering,  106 
around  Maracaibo,  quality  of,  60 
belt  for  elevating,  176 
best  quality  of,  where  found,  45 
brick  machine,  Chambers’s  temper¬ 
ed,  200-210 

condition  of,  when  moulded  into 
certain  tested  bricks,  72 
dangers  of  digging,  as  generally 
practised,  105 

deposits  of  New  Jersey,  average 
depth  of,  307,  308 
different  varieties  of,  their  charac¬ 
teristics,  qualities,  and  localities, 
44-63 

dried,  not  suited  to  make  bricks, 
177 

dry,  a  misnomer,  73 
dust  tiles,  436,  437 
elevating  of,  by  machinery,  196 
elevator,  without  a  gangway,  197, 
198 

construction  of,  176 
fire,  injured  by  lime  admixture, 
232 

materials  used  in  making,  231 
for  drain  pipes,  handling,  359 
for  roofing  tiles,  law  of  Edward 
IV.,  332 

for  tile  works,  preparation  of,  339 
freshly  dug,  how  it  should  be  treat¬ 
ed,  54 

from  the  seashore  not  suitable  for 
bricks,  48 

machine  for  mixing  hard  and  tough 
with  sand  and  water,  195, 
196 

Hoxie  and  Pifer’s,  271-274 
illustration  and  detailed  de¬ 
scription  of  as  used  in  Wash- 
ton,  D.  C.,  170-175 
manner  of  digging,  104 
mill,  illustration  and  detailed  de¬ 
scription  of,  266-271 
modern  pian  of  tempering,  106 
pits,  illustration  and  detailed  de¬ 
scription  of,  as  improved  by 
Henry  Aiken,  of  Philadelphia, 
H8-122 

plasticity  and  shrinkage  of,  im¬ 
portance  of,  243 
of,  injured  by  certain  sub¬ 
stances,  56 

of,  when  it  commences  and 
ceases,  245 


460 


INDEX. 


Clay,  plasticity — 

what  dependent  on,  55 
preparation  of,  for  making  bricks 
by  hand,  103-106 
of,  for  roof  tiles,  334,  335 
of,  in  the  London  tileries,  340 
qualities  of,  in  several  States,  44, 

45 

rolls,  compound,  193,  194,  195 
Russian,  59 
strong,  55 

strong,  how  treated  by  London 
brick-makers,  56 
tempering  of,  106-122 
the  only  material  from  which 
bricks  should  be  made,  69 
the  only  mineral  substance  possess¬ 
ing  plasticity,  55 
to  what  the  term  is  applied,  44 
untempered,  poor  quality  of  bricks 
made  from,  74 

what  is  meant  by  “tempering,” 
106 

weak,  55 

where  obtained,  44 

Clays,  advantages  of  mixing  them,  54, 
55 

best  adapted  for  making  blue 
bricks,  98 

chemical  tests  of,  not  of  much  use, 

46 

combination  of,  for  terra-cotta,  307 
containing  carbonaceous  matters 
injurious  to  bricks,  53 
containing  pebbles,  treatment  of, 
191-193 
Cuban,  60 

eocene,  where  found  in  England, 
257- 

fat,  their  friability,  244 
fire,  varieties  found  in  the  United 
States,  250 

hard,  Holland’s  mill  for  reducing, 
illustration  and  detailed  descrip¬ 
tion  of,  263-266 

how  and  when  dug  for  brick-ma¬ 
chines,  168,  169 

injurious  effect  of  excess  of  lime,  46 
made  into  pug,  73 
meagre,  readily  become  plastic, 
244 

miocene,  where  found  in  England, 
257 

mixed  by  Mr  Blashfield,  of  Stam¬ 
ford,  England,  307 
New  Jersey,  307 


Clays — 

of  the  coal  measures  for  terra-cotta, 
306 

physical  tests  of,  the  most  reliable, 
46 

pure,  defined,  54 
refractory,  236 

rich  in  lime  or  alkalies,  not  good 
for  brick-making,  46 
South  American,  poor  quality  of, 
60 

strong,  bricks  made  from,  65 
terra-cotta,  analysis  of,  306 
their  proper  condition  when  hauled 
into  the  brick-yard,  55 
Clustered  chimney  shafts,  ‘302 
Coal,  amount  required  to  burn  bricks, 

150 

burning  a  kiln  of  bricks  with,  144- 

151 

objections  to  use  of,  in  burning 
light  colored  terra-cotta,  323 
soft,  not  suited  for  burning  blue 
bricks,  99 
Coke  ovens,  286 

Colchester,  England,  old  Roman  mate¬ 
rials  re-used  at,  26 
Color  for  tiles,  331 

in  mediaeval  buildings,  287 
Colored  bricks  in  the  ornamental  archi¬ 
tecture  of  the  Middle  Ages,  22 
pavements,  history  of,  397 
Colors  for  enamelling  bricks,  tiles,  and 
earthenware,  75-84 
for  ornamental  bricks,  mixtures 
for,  78 

for  tiles,  usual,  how  produced, 
341,  342 

formulas  for  composing,  76,  77 
metallic,  glazes  for,  89 
Columns,  fire-clay,  and  terra-cotta,  286 
Connecticut,  quality  of  clay  in,  45 
Contrivance  for  preventing  the  dis¬ 
placement  of  drain-pipes  in  the  kiln, 
386-389 

Cornwall,  England,  clay  products  of, 
257 

Corroding  influence  of  metals  on  fire¬ 
bricks,  239. 

Cowper’s  glaze,  97 

Crabtree,  John,  “  Peerless  Press,”  in¬ 
vented  by,  227-229 
Croton  clay,  44 

Crucibles  and  retorts,  great  care  neces¬ 
sary  for  their  manufacture,  241 
Crusaders,  the,  397 


INDEX. 


461 


Crusher,  four  roller  of  Frey,  196 
Cubau  clays,  quality  of,  60 
Cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Babylonish 
bricks,  20 

Curved  earthenware  pipes,  machines 
for,  378-394 
making,  381-383 

Curving  pipes,  the  principle  of,  383 
Cutting-off  table,  362,  363 

sewer  pipe,  improved  machine  for, 
389-394 


Damp-clay  machines,  superiority  of, 
73,  74 

houses,  caused  by  use  of  porous 
bricks,  166 
“  Dead  Gold,”  91 

Delaware,  quality  of  clay  found  in,  45 
Delft-ware,  origin  of,  404 
Description  of  wheelbarrows;  setting 
and  burning  the  bricks ;  improve¬ 
ments  in  constructing  permanent 
and  temporary  kilns,  135-163 
Designs  in  terra-cotta,  treatment  of, 
298,  299 

Detritus,  pumice-stone,  a  material  for 
light  bricks,  62 

Different  varieties  of  clay,  their  cha¬ 
racteristics,  qualities,  and  localities, 
44-63 

Diffusion  of  air  in  kilns,  285 
Dinas  fire-brick,  234,  235 
lasting  qualities  of,  235 
Displacement  of  drain-pipes  in  the  kiln, 
contrivance  for  preventing,  386-389 
District  of  Columbia,  quality  of  clay 
found  in,  45 

Dodd’s  improved  tile  carrier  for  hori¬ 
zontal  tile  machines,  384-386 
Dorsetshire  clays  for  terra-cotta,  307 
terra-cotta  clay  of,  306 
Dovetail  grooves  on  backs  of  tiles, 
437,  438 

Drainage,  agricultural,  consideration  of 
in  England,  356 

Drain  pipes,  Ainslie  machine  for  mak¬ 
ing,  355 

general  form  and  size  of,  358 
how  made  by  hand  in  Eng¬ 
land,  354,  355 
manufacture  of,  354-377 
usual  plan  of  making  them  by 
machinery,  354 


Drake  pipe  machine,  illustration  and 
detailed  description  of,  363-367 
Drier,  controlled  by  Chambers,  Bro.  & 
Co.,  Philadelphia,  210-216 
Dry  clay,  a  misnomer,  73 

machines,  disadvantages  of, 
73,  74 

inferior  bricks  made  by, 
165 

Drying  car,  invented  by  Wm.  L.  Gregg, 
of  Chicago,  illustrations  and  de¬ 
tailed  description  of,  216-220 
fire-bricks,  249 
in  terra-cotta  work,  316-322 
in  the  open  air,  dangers  from  the 
weather  in,  322 

room,  how  to  prepare,  316,  317 
sheds,  description  of,  127,  128 
steam,  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  321 
terra-cotta  by  furnace  heat,  318- 
320 

by  use  of  steam  coils,  318 
the  bricks,  126-135 
Dunnachie,  Jas.,  of  Lanark,  Scotland, 
improved  kiln  for  burning  fire-bricks, 
278-285 

Dust-clay  intaglios,  sharpness  and  defi¬ 
nition  of  texture  of,  436 
Dutch  clinkers,  as  made  in  South  Hol¬ 
land,  58 


Earthenware  glazes,  96-98 

pipes,  curved,  machines  for,  378- 
394 

making,  381-383 

Earths,  argillaceous,  how  divided,  54 
Ecouen,  Chateau  of,  paving  at,  405 
Edinburgh,  materials  used  for  building 
at,  29 

Efflorescence,  investigation  into  its 
causes  by  the  Academy  of  Natu¬ 
ral  Sciences  in,  52 
conditions  which  produce  it,  53 
Egypt,  ancient  and  modern,  plan  of 
brick-making  in,  19 
ancient,  brick-making  a  royal 
monopoly  in,  21 

Assyria  and  Babylonia,  the  nurse¬ 
ries  of  the  ceramic  arts,  23 
caste  influence  upon  art,  432 
material  of,  for  brick-making,  19 
Egyptian  decoration,  colors  used  in,  20 
bricks  made  for  by  the  Israelites, 
18 


462 


INDEX. 


Elberg,  George,  machine  for  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  floorin';  tiles,  illustration 
and  detailed  description,  438-453 
Electrotypes,  moulds  for,  435 
Elevator,  clay,  without  a  gangway, 
197,  198 

Eltzner,  Robert,  of  New  York,  inven¬ 
tion  for  making  mosaic  pavements, 
417-421 

Enamel,  composition  for,  75 

invented  by  Decius  W.  Clark,  of 
Philadelphia,  78 

porcelain  and  glass  on  bricks  for 
decorative  purposes,  76 
Enamelling  and  glazing  bricks  and 
tiles  having  plain  and  uneven  sur¬ 
faces,  earthenware,  etc.,  75-84 
fine  wares,  88-96 

process  of  Jno.  D.  Logan,  of 
Philadelphia,  82-84 
Enamels  and  glazes,  how  applied  to 
bricks,  77 

colored,  their  artistic  position  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  76 
“  Encallowing,”  explanation  of,  103 
Encaustic  Tile  Co.  of  Indianapolis, 
Ind.,  424 

England,  bricks  made  in,  by  the  Ro¬ 
mans,  26 

decline  of  art  in,  425,  431 
earliest  true  brick  building  in,  27 
early  examples  of  mosaic  paving, 
416 

fire-brick  industry  in,  256-258 
glazes  used  at  Staffordshire,  88, 
89. 

primitive  churches  in,  earliest  stone 
buildings  in  western  Europe,  27 
process  of  brick-making  in,  56-58 
terra-cotta  decoration  in,  295,  296 
English  brick  architecture  in  mediaeval 
times,  examples  of,  28 
institutions,  not  conducive  to  the 
growth  of  art,  431,  432 
patent  law,  the  salient  points  of,  38 
system  changes  in,  37-40 
defects  in,  35-37 

Etruria,  terra-cotta  decorations  in,  295 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  cities  of  the 
plains  of,  19,  20 

Euryalus,  or  Agrolas,  first  application 
of  bricks  attributed  to,  23 
Ewart  &  Co.,  J.  C.,  Akron,  Ohio, 
makers  of  roofing  tiles,  343 
Exeter  Cathedral,  roofing  of,  300 


Fabroni,  Giovanni,  discovery  of  art  of 
making  floating  bricks,  61 
Fans,  how  they  can  be  used  to  advan¬ 
tage,  276 

Fire-brick,  burning,  256 

chemical  changes  in  burning,  255 
color  of,  not  always  an  indication 
of  the  absence  of  iron,  256 
Dinas,  234,  235 
joints  in  blast  furnaces,  237 
manufacture  in  Belgium,  239,  240 
masonry,  careless  construction  of, 
238 

the  stability  of,  what  depend¬ 
ant  on,  237 

material  for,  in  North  Wales, 
Derbyshire,  and  Ireland,  258 
proper  color  of,  255 
Fire-bricks  and  fire-clays,  231-293 

causes  of  their  destruction  in 
various  positions,  236-238 
compounds  for,  248 
contractibility  of,  during  burning, 
255 

corroding  influence  of  metals  on, 
239 

drying,  249 

Gerhard’s  machine  for  moulding, 
275,  276 

in  blast  furnaces,  requirements  in 
regard  to,  238,  239 
Jas.  Dunnachie,  of  Scotland,  ma¬ 
chine  for,  278-285 
made  in  Cornwall,  England,  257 
necessity  of  their  inspection,  239 
sizes  and  shapes  of,  259 
stages  of  their  manufacture,  259 
use  of  refuse  materials  in  making, 
246 

Fire-clay  analysis  of,  233 

a  reasonably  good  one  an  abund¬ 
ant  substance  in  this  country, 
251. 

beds  of  the  coal  measures,  250 
what  they  consist  of,  251 
where  found,  251 
Carnell’s  mill  for  stamping,  262, 
263 

columns  in  United  States  Pension 
Office  at  Washington,  1).  C.,  286 
formula  of  M.  Brogniard,  234 
injured  by  lime  admixture,  232 
materials  employed  in  making,  231 
Newell  mill  for  grinding,  260- 
262 


INDEX. 


463 


Fire-clay — 

products,  how  to  set  them  in  the 
oven,  277 
properties  of,  231 
tiles  for  fire-proof  constructions, 
288 

Fire-clays,  alumina  and  silica  in,  253 
analysis  of,  252 
chemical  qualities  of,  252 
composition  of,  232,  233 
fire-bricks,  and  other  products,  and 
the  necessary  machines,  etc., 
231-293 

improvement  of,  by  dry-clay 
moulding,  254 

in  the  United  States,  two  classes 
of,  251 

of  Devon  and  Dorsetshire,  254 
physical  tests  of,  252,  253 
tertiary,  254 

use  of,  for  terra-cotta,  30G,  307 
varieties  found  in  the  U  nited  States, 
250 

Fireplaces,  early,  301 

Fire-proof  magazine  made  by  Fabroni, 
G1 

partitions,  62 

Fire-proofing  of  ceilings,  floors,  and 
roofs,  with  light  bricks,  62,  G3 
iron  columns  with  hollow  tiles, 
292,  293 

Fires,  crossing  of.  145 

how  they  are  built  in  the  kiln,  145 

Flooring  tiles,  machinery  and  process 
for  manufacturing,  438-453 

Flues  in  kilns,  285 

kiln,  care  required  in  managing, 
277 

France,  clays  of,  60 

Frey’s  four  roller  crusher,  good  quali¬ 
ties  of,  196 

Frey,  Sheckler  &  Hoover,  of  Bucyrus, 
Ohio,  makers  of  Tiffany's  machine, 
198 

Furnaces  for  Bessemer  process  of  mak¬ 
ing  cast  steel,  difficulty  in  pro¬ 
curing  bricks  to  withstand  the 
high  heat  of,  246 

precautions  to  be  taken  in  build¬ 
ing,  238 

Gabii  and  Alba,  fire-proof  stone  from, 
in  rebuilding  Rome,  24 

Gelatine,  liquid,  its  use  in  terra-cotta 
moulding,  315,  316 


General  remarks  on  hand  process,  101 — 
103 

concerning  bricks ;  enamel¬ 
ling  bricks  and  tiles  ;  glaz¬ 
ing  earthenware,  etc.,  64- 
75 

George  III.,  taxation  of  bricks  under, 
28 

Gerhard’s  machine,  for  tempering  and 
moulding  fire-bricks,  275,  276 
Germany,  bricks  made  in,  by  the 
Romans,  26 

Gesso,  or  ground  for  paint  in  mediaeval, 
buildings,  287 
Gilding,  process  of,  91 
Glasgow,  material  used  in  building  in, 
29 

Glaze,  Cowper’s,  97 

earthenware,  composition  for, 
96,  97 

salt,  how  applied  to  drain-pipes, 
359 

Glazed  bricks  of  Babylon,  400 
Glazes  for  metallic  colors,  89 
Glazing  and  enamelling  bricks  and  tiles 
having  plain  and  uneven  surfaces, 
earthenware,  etc.,  75-84 
“Gluts,”  definition  of,  69 
Gothic  architecture,  origin  of,  399 
Graves,  Willis  N.,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
kiln  invented  by,  151-156 
Great  Britain,  fire-brick  manufacture 
centred  in  the  coal  districts  of,  256, 

'  257 

Grecian  bricks  in  first  century  of  Chris¬ 
tian  era,  24 

temples  built  of  stone,  23 
Greece  and  Rome,  inlaid  work  of, 
415,  416 

bricks  in,  at  time  of  Pliny,  25 
terra-cotta  decoration  in,  294,  295 
Greek  and  Roman  tiles,  examples  of, 
328,  329 

Greeks,  ancient,  not  favorable  towards 
burnt  clay,  23 

Gregg,  Isaac,  brick-press  of,  225 

Jr.,  Isaac,  brick-machine  of,  188 
triple  pressure  brick-machine,  ca¬ 
pacity  of,  179-181 
Writ.  L.,  invention  of,  181 

of  Chicago,  Ill.,  drying  car, 
216,  220 

“  Grog,”  what  it  consists  of,  313 
Ground-laying,  89 


464 


INDEX. 


Haarlem  Meer,  slime  from,  as  a  brick 
material,  58 

Hall,  Alfred,  improvement  of,  in  pug- 
mill,  109-113 
of,  in  terra-cotta  kilns, 
324-326 

Hampton  Court  Palace,  28 
Hand-press,  Carnell’s,  276 
Hand  process,  manufacture  of  bricks 
by,  101-163 
Haverstraw  clay,  44 

poor  quality  of  bricks  made  at,  69 
Herodotus  on  the  bricks  used  in  the 
walls  of  Babylon,  19 
on  the  inscription  on  the  pyramid 
of  Howara,  59 

High  reliefs,  Low’s  process  for  obtain¬ 
ing,  434 

to  under-cut,  434 

Hillar  built  of  bricks  from  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Babylon,  20 
History  of  bricks,  17-43 
Hoflinan’s  annular  kiln,  278 

kiln,  use  of,  in  terra-cotta 
work,  323 
Ho-ho,  410,  411 

Holland,  material,  used  for  building  and 
paving,  29 

mill,  for  reduction  of  hard  clays, 
262-264 

Hope,  H.  S.,  407 

Howara,  pyramid  of,  inscription  on,  59 
Hoxsie  and  Pifer  machine,  illustration 
and  detailed  description  of,  2 7 1 — 274 
Hudson  River  clays,  44 
Hurtsmonceaux  Castle,  Sussex,  Eng¬ 
land,  27 

Hyperbius  of  Crete,  first  application  of 
brick  attributed  to,  23 

Illinois,  fire-bricks  made  in,  250 
Imitation  inlaid,  or  intarsia  surfaces,  | 
421-424 

Improved  brick  drying  shed,  128,  135 
Improvements  in  constructing  perma¬ 
nent  kilns,  151-156 
in  kiln  roofs,  160-163 
India  and  China,  glazing  in  fixed  colors 
in,  397 

well  preserved  adobes  in,  23 
Inlaid  imitation,  or  intarsia  surface, 
414-424 

Intaglios  of  natural  objects,  to  obtain, 

435 

Intarsia  surfaces,  414-424 


International  protection  for  inventions 
under  the  English  patent  law,  40 
Iron  columns,  fire-proofing  with  hollow 
tiles,  292,  293 
fire-brick,  256 
pyrites  in  clays,  48 

Israel,  children  of,  making  bricks  for 
the  Egyptians,  18 
Italian  clays,  quality  of,  60 
Italy,  brick- work  in,  28 

clay  for  fire-proof  bricks  in,  62 
southern,  materials  in,  for  light 
bricks,  62 

terra-cotta  decoration  in,  295 

Jacquemart,  description  of  terra-cotta 
in  use  in  Rome,  297,  298 
Japan,  superior  tile  work  in,  410 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  father  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  patent  system,  40 
Joseph  in  Egypt,  21 

Kaolin,  where  found  in  Russia,  60 
“  Kellying,”  explanation  of,  103 
Kenilworth  Castle,  terra-cotta  tiles  in 
fire-place,  301 

Kensington  Museum,  specimens  of  Ja¬ 
panese  art  in,  410 
works  of  Luca  della  Robbia 
in,  403 

Khern,  Joseph,  process  for  manufactur¬ 
ing  silicious  brick,  247,  248 
Kiln  for  fire-bricks  invented  by  James 
Dunnaehie,  of  Lanark,  Scotland, 
illustration  and  detailed  descrip¬ 
tion  of,  278-285 
Hoffman’s,  278 

illustrations  and  detailed  descrip¬ 
tion  of,  invented  by  W.  N. 
Graves,  of  St.  Louis,  151-156 
preparation  of,  before  putting  in  of 
bricks,  143 

roof,  illustration  and  detailed  de¬ 
scription  of  the  invention  of 
Thomas  F.  Adams,  of  Phil¬ 
adelphia,  160-163 
used  by  the  Peerless  Brick 
Co.,  160-163 

roofs,  improvements  in,  160-163 
setting  bricks  in,  141-143 
terra-cotta,  invented  by  Alfred 
Hall,  of  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J., 
illustration  and  detailed  descrip¬ 
tion  of,  324-326 


INDEX. 


465 


Kilns,  circular,  overdraft,  advantages 
of,  for  terra-cotta,  323,  324 
fire,  how  to  set  the  clay  products 
in,  277 
firing  of,  92 

for  burning  blue  bricks,  92 
for  tiles,  340 
glaze,  how  filled,  91,  92 
John  Murtaugh’s  contrivance  to 
prevent  displacement  of  drain¬ 
pipes  in,  illustration  and  de¬ 
scription  of,  38G-389 
on  the  regenerative  principle, 
largely  used,  278 
“  overdraft,”  278 
terra-cotta,  advantages  of  the  over¬ 
draft  system  in,  323 
forms  of,  323 
various  kinds  of,  148 

Kiitzing,  microscopic  observations  by, 
61 

Lake  View  Terra-Cotta  Company  of 
Chicago,  work  done  by,  309 

Lawson,  Dr.  Isaac,  of  Scotland,  suc¬ 
cess  in  making  zinc  from  calamine, 
241,  242 

Layard,  A.  H.,  on  the  ruins  of  Baby¬ 
lon,  20 

Lehigh  Zinc  Co.,  success  of,  in  making 
zinc,  242,  243 

Lethostrata,  work  of  Sosos,  of  Per- 
gamos,  415 

Lime,  carbonate  of,  its  hindrance  to 
good  bricks,  47 
effect  of,  on  clays,  47 
injury  of,  to  fire-clays,  232 
presence  of,  in  fire-brick,  256 

Little  Wenham  Hall  in  Suffolk,  Eng¬ 
land,  the  earliest  true  brick  building, 
in,  27 

Loams,  defined,  54 

how  they  are  treated  in  England 
57 

Loftus,  Kennet,  discoveries  of,  in  As¬ 
syria,  400 

Logan,  Jno.  D.,  process  for  brick  ena¬ 
melling,  82-84 

Lollard’s  Tower,  Lambeth  Palace,  28 

London,  bricks  universally  used  after 
the  great  fire  in  1666,  28 
dangerous  buildings  in,  25 
materials  used  in  building,  29 
process  for  making  best  quality  of 
bricks,  56 
30 


Longcamp,  M.,  theory  of,  53 
Low,  J.  G  ,  course  of  study  of,  430 
decorative  tiles  of,  426 
Low’s  process  for  forming  dove-tail 
grooves  on  the  backs  of  tiles, 
437,  438 

process  for  surfacing  tile,  433-438 
tiles,  specimens  of,  428 
Lumber  made  of  terra-cotta,  process  for, 
308,  309 

Machine,  for  cutting  sewer-pipe  rings, 
389-394 

for  production  of  special  objects 
of  intarsia  surfaces,  421-424 
Gerhard's,  for  tempering  and 
moulding  fire-bricks,  275,  276 
Hoxsie  and  Pifer’s,  for  brick  and 
terra-cotta  clays,  illustrated  and 
detailed  description  of,  271-274 
Machines  for  forming  sockets  on,  and 
making  curved  earthenware  pipes, 
378-394 

Machinery  and  process  for  manufactu¬ 
ring  flooring  tiles,  438,  453 
examples  of  work  done  by,  230 
Maine,  quality  of  clay  in,  44 
Majolica,  wares  to  which  the  name  is 
applied,  401 

Malkin’s  process  for  making  plain  and 
inlaid  tiles,  414 
“Malm,”  what  it  is,  56 
Manufacture  of  bricks  by  the  hand 
process,  101-163 

of  bricks  by  the  machine  process, 
164-230 

of  drain  pipes,  354-377 
of  mosaics  and  imitation  inlaid  or 
intarsia  surfaces,  414-424 
of  roofing  tiles  and  sewer  pipes, 
327-394 

of  terra  cotta,  306-316 
Maracaibo,  bricks  and  tiles  made  in,  60 
Marl,  injurious  effects  of  excess  of 
lime  in,  46 
Marls,  defined,  54 

troubles  experienced  in  working 
them,  55 

Maryland,  fire-bricks  made  at  Mt. 
Savage,  250 
quality  of  clay  in,  45 
Massachusetts,  quality  of  clay  in,  44 
Matthiessen  and  Hegeler,  unsuccessful 
attempt  of  to  make  zinc  by  the.-  Sile¬ 
sian  plan,  242 


466 


INDEX. 


Meigs,  Gen.  M.  C.,  tests  by,  of  the  re¬ 
sistance  of  terra-cotta 
tiles,  289 

tests  of  bricks  by,  71 
Merrill,  C.  J.,  machine  for  tile  making, 
invented  by,  344 

roofing  tile  machine,  illustration 
and  detailed  de¬ 
scription  of,  344- 
349 

practical  operation, 
345 

Metallic  or  vitreous  colors  for  ornament¬ 
ing  bricks  and  tiles,  84-86 
Metals,  corroding  influence  of,  on  fire¬ 
bricks,  239 

Michigan,  fire-bricks  made  in,  250 
Mill,  clay,  266-271 

Holland’s  for  reduction  of  hard 
clay,  262-266 

Newell,  for  grinding  fire-clay, 
260-262 

pug,  description  of,  108 

illustration  and  detailed  de¬ 
scription  of,  as  improved  bv 
Alfred  Hall,  109-113 
Miller  Press,  225-226 
Mills,  disintegrating,  how  classified,  169 
Milwaukee,  quality  of  clay  around,  45 
Mineral  Point,  Ohio,  clay,  250 
Minton,  Herbert,  of  England,  his  ser¬ 
vices  in  art  pottery,  406 
Missouri,  fire-bricks  made  in,  250 
“Moon,”  use  of,  in  stirring  fires,  146 
Mortier,  Peter,  description  of  the  city 
hall  of  Amsterdam  by,  29 
Mosaic  plates  for  pavements,  inven¬ 
tion  of  Robt.  Eltzner,  for  manu¬ 
facturing,  417-421 
work  still  practised  in  Italy,  416 
Mosaics  and  imitation  inlaid  or  intarsia 
surfaces,  414-424 
cheap,  preparation  of,  416 
formed  with  tiles,  414 
glass,  made  in  Russia,  415 
Roman  and  Elorentine,  416 
Moses,  18 
Moulder’s  lute,  125 
Moulding,  112-126,  314-316 
gang,  daily  task  of,  123 
how  composed,  108 
how  done,  122,  123 
•of  tiles,  336 

perfect,  what  it  consists  in,  1 24 
table,  description  of,  122,  123,  335 


Moulds,  brick,  how  stamped  in  Wash¬ 
ington,  1).  C.,  66 
difficulty  of  making  them,  314 
for  terra-cotta,  making,  314 
Mound  builders  in  Northwest  and  Cen¬ 
tral  America,  proficients  in  sewer 
draining,  358 

Mount  Savage  fire-bricks,  250 
Mud  of  the  Nile  for  brick-making,  19 
Murtagh,  John,  of  Boston,  invention 
for  preventing  displacement  of  pipes 
in  the  kiln,  386-389 

Natural  objects,  intaglios  of,  435 
Nebuchadnezzar,  name  of,  stamped  on 
the  bricks  in  the  walls  of  Bag¬ 
dad,  20 

palaces,  bricks  of,  20 
Nehemiah,  396 

Netherlands,  buildings  in  the  cities  of, 

29 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  clays  at,  312 
New  England,  wages  of  carpenters  and 
bricklayers  in  1630,  30 
New  Haven,  first  settlement  of  brick- 
makers  in  the  United  States,  30 
New  Jersey,  “  Amboy  clay”  of,  250 
clay  beds,  order  of  supercession 
in,  307,  808 
clavs  in,  307 

importance  of,  308 
quality  of  clay  in,  45 
Zinc  Co.,  makers  of  zinc  in  1850, 
242 

New  Lisbon,  O.,  fire-clay  of,  251 
New  York  Terra  Cotta  Lumber  Co., 
308,  309 

qualities  of  clay  in  several  locali¬ 
ties,  44 

Newell  mill,  illustration  and  descrip¬ 
tion  of,  260-262 

‘Nile,  mud  of,  for  brick-making,  19 
Nitrogen,  its  efl'ect  in  producing  salt¬ 
petre,  52 

Noah,  descendants  of  the  sons  of,  the 
first  potters,  1 7 

Norman  decoration  and  architecture, 
398,  399 

glazed  tiles  correspond  with  By¬ 
zantine  architectures,  399 
tiles,  398,  399 

Normans,  art  among  the,  397,  398 
North  Devon  terra  cotta  clay,  analysis 

of,  306 

Nova  Scotia,  quality  of  clay  found  in,  45 


INDEX. 


467 


Off-bearer,  duties  of,  123 
Ohio,  clay  found  at  Mineral  Point,  250 
fire-bricks  made  in,  250 
Opus  Alexandrinum,  415,  416 
lateritium,  25 
Musivum  in  Rome,  415 
reticulatum,  24 

Ornamental  bricks  of  the  Peerless 
Brick  Co.,  93,  9.4 
tiles,  general  remarks  on,  395-414 
etc.,  395-453 

Ornamentation  of  bricks,  tiles,  and 
building  blocks,  having  plain  or 
uniform  surfaces,  86-88 
Orn  amenting  bricks  and  tiles  of  uneven 
surfaces  with  metallic  or  vitreous 
colors,  84-86 

Oxide  of  iron  in  brick  clays,  46 
Oxides,  coloring,  how  to  use,  77 
Oyster  shells  in  clay,  how  they  should 
be  treated,  48 

Palissy,  Bernard,  404,  405 

ware,  invention  of  Bernard 
Palissy,  404,  405 

Pantiles,  English,  sizes  and  weights  of, 
330 

first  used  in  Flanders,  330 
glazing  of,  331 
modifications  of,  330,  331 
Partitions,  fireproof,  62 
Party  walls  in  Greece,  25 
Patent  system,  American,  benefits 
from,  35 

founded  April  10,  1790, 
40 

English,  improvements  in, 
37-40 

its  defects,  35-37 
salient  points  of,  38 
Patentee,  English,  his  rights  with  the 
government,  39 

Patents,  American,  1790  to  1812,  con¬ 
fined  almost  exclusively  to  agri¬ 
cultural  and  commercial  pur¬ 
poses,  41 

suits  for  infringement  of,  how  pro¬ 
vided  for,  39 

Pavement,  mosaic,  Robt.  Eltzner’s 
invention  for  making,  illustra¬ 
tion  and  detailed  description  of, 
417-421 

Pavements,  foot,  in  use  in  Philadelphia, 
33 

Peat  beds,  clay  underlying,  251 


Peerless  Brick  Co.,  kiln  roof  used  by, 
160 

of  Philadelphia,  designs 
of  ornamental  bricks 
of,  93,  94 
machine,  199,  200 
press,  invented  by  John  Crab¬ 
tree,  of  Philadelphia,  227, 
228 

Penn,  William,  instructions  to  build  a 
brick  house,  31 

Pennsylvania,  brick  always  a  choice 
material  for  building  in,  31 
good  fire-bricks  made  from  the 
clay  of  the  coal  measures  in,  250 
quality  of  clay  found  in,  45 
Permanent  kiln,  improvement  in  con¬ 
structing,  151-156  • 

Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  clays  at,  311, 
312 

Pharaoh,  21 
Philadelphia,  52 
bricks  of,  45 

Centennial  Exposition,  improve¬ 
ment  in  American  art  since,  425, 
426 

cost  of  bricks  and  wages  for  brick¬ 
laying  in  1 705,  32 
erection  of  Independence  Hall,  32 
foot  pavements  in,  33 
“Great  Meeting-house”  of  Friends, 
33 

ground  given  by  Geo.  Fox  to  build 
a  “  meeting-house,”  33 
how  funds  were  provided  to  build 
the  old  court-house,  32 
oldest  brick  building  in,  32 
Pipe  machine,  for  making  large  pipes, 
illustration  and  description 
of,  376,  377 

illustrations  and  description 
of,  invented  by  Horace  B. 
Camp,  378-383 
old  style,  3  76,  377 

Pipes,  curved  earthenware,  machines 
for,  378,  394 

curving,  the  principle  of,  383 
Pitane,  bricks  made  at  A.  D.  24,  61 
Pithon,  buildings  of,  21 
Plastic  material,  Low’s,  433 
Polychrome  treatment  ot  fire-proof 
columns,  287 

Pompeii,  terra-cotta  decoration  in,  295 
Porcelain,  manufacture  of,  abandoned 
at  Maracaibo,  61 


468 


INDEX. 


Potomac  Terra-cotta  Co.,  tiles  of,  290, 
291 

Potts  machine,  illustration  and  de¬ 
tailed  description  of,  367-376 
“  Pounce,”  its  use  to  prevent  repetition 
of  drawing  the  pattern,  91 
Powder  magazine,  fire  proof,  made  by 
Fabroni,  61 

Preparation  of  the  clay,  103-106 
Press,  hand,  Carncll’s,  227,  276 
Gregg’s,  225 
Miller’s,  225 
“Peerless,”  227 
Crabtree’s,  227 

Pressed  bricks,  how  made,  221-223 
how  set  in  the  kiln,  224 
or  front  bricks,  how  made,  69 
Pressure  required  to  crush  bricks,  71, 
72 

Process  and  machines  for  manufacturing 
flooring  tiles,  438-453 
of  Boulton  and  Worthington,  408, 
409 

of  brick-making  in  Washington 
City,  101 

of  Decius  W.  Clark,  for  making 
enamels,  78-80 
of  fine  enamelling,  89 
of  Jas.  C.  Anderson,  for  ornament¬ 
ing  bricks,  84-86 
of  Jas.  C.  Anderson,  for  ornament¬ 
ing  bricks  with  plain  surfaces, 
86-88 

of  Jno.  D.  Logan,  of  Philadelphia, 
for  enamelling  bricks,  82-84 
of  manufacturing  bricks  by  ma¬ 
chinery,  wages  of,  168 
of  manufacturing  roofing  tiles,  334- 
354 

of  producing  terra-cotta  objects 
from  models,  etc.,  315 
of  terra-cotta  work  at  Albert  Hall, 
and  other  large  works  in  Eng¬ 
land,  315 

of  tile-making,  between  the  12th 
and  15th  centuries,  412 
Prosser,  Mr.,  of  Birmingham,  discovery 
by,  407 

Pug  mill,  description  of,  108 
how  used,  108 

illustration  and  detailed  de¬ 
scription  of,  as  improved  by 
Alfred  Hall,  109-113 
usual  form  and  size  of,  in  Eng¬ 
land,  335 


Pumice-stone,  detritus,  a  material  for 
light  bricks,  62 

Pyramid  of  Howara,  inscription  on,  59 

Raineses  II.,  21 
Rawlinson,  Sir  Henry,  20 
Refractory  clays,  236 

influence  of  plastic  character 
of,  on  the  bricks,  253,  254 
power  of  fire-clay  wares,  how  en¬ 
hanced,  232 

Refuse  materials  in  making  fire-bricks, 
246 

Regenerative  kiln,  Dunnachie’s,  278- 

285 

Revival  of  the  taste  for  ornamental 
and  polychrome  brick-work,  22 
Rhode  Island,  quality  of  clay  in,  44 
Ring  pits,  description  and  use  of,  115, 
116 

difficulties  in  constructing  and 
using  them,  117,  118 
Rings,  sewer-pipe,  machine  for  cutting, 
389-394 

Robbia,  Andrea  and  Luca  della,  II., 

403 

Girolamo  and  Giovanni  della,  403, 

404 

Luca  della,  artistic  works  by, 
401-404 

discovered  by,  401 
Rochester  Castle,  fire-places  in,  302 
Rollers  for  clay  mills,  how  made  and 
geared,  193 

used  for  hard  marls,  strong  clays, 
etc.,  175 

Roman  and  Greek  tiles,  examples  of, 
328,  329 

bricks  in  first  century  of  Christian 
era,  24 

empire,  use  of  terra-cotta  in  its 
public  buildings,  297 
tiles  in  first  century  of  Christian 
era,  25 

quality  and  size  of,  25 
Romans,  credit  of  first  burning  of 
bricks  in  kilns,  belongs  to,  24 
drainage  of  the,  357 
Rome,  after  the  conquest  of  Carthage, 
Greece,  and  Egypt,  adopting 
their  arts,  24 

and  Greece,  inlaid  work  in,  415, 
416 

construction  of  buildings  in  Nero’s 
time,  24 


INDEX. 


469 


Rome — 

first  introduction  of  tiles  into,  328 
originally  roofed  with  shingle,  328 
restriction  of  height  of  buildings 
in,  under  Augustus  and  Nero,  24 
terra-cotta  decoration  in,  295 
Roofing  tile  machine,  for  using  plastic 
clay,  349-353 
of  C.  J.  Merrill,  illustra¬ 
tion  and  detailed  de¬ 
scription  of,  344-349 

tiles,  300 

and  sewer-pipes,  manufacture 
of,  327-394 

directions  for  burning,  337- 
339 

instructions  in  regard  to  the 
ovens,  339 
patterns  for,  342 
process  of  manufacturing, 
334-354 

Roof  tiles,  various  forms  of,  333 
Roofs,  preparation  of,  for  tiling,  334 
Ruskin,  John,  22 
Russia,  brick  product  in  1880,  59 
clay  in,  59 
kaolin  found  in,  60 
progress  of  brick-making  in,  since 
1867,  59,  60 


St.  Alban’s  Abbey,  Roman  bricks  used 
in,  26 

St.  Louis,  quality  of  clay  used  around, 
45 

Salt  glaze,  how  applied,  97,  98 
Saltpetring,  cause  of,  48-51 

in  old  structures  in  1882,  52 
proposed  remedy  for,  51,  52 
Sand  in  brick  clays,  46,  47 

quality  of,  to  be  added  to  clay,  46 
Sea-sand,  use  of,  always  produces 
“saltpetring,”  42 

Selden’s  &  McLean’s  brick  machine, 
181-188 

Setting  the  bricks  in  the  kiln,  141-143 
Sewer  drains,  laws  regulating  them  in 
District  of  Columbia,  U.  S.,  358 
pipe  rings,  and  machine  for  cutting, 
389-394 

and  roofing  tiles,  manufacture 
of,  327-394 

made  for  connecting  with 
smaller  pipes,  360 
Sgraffito  effects,  436 


Shed,  drying,  illustration  and  detailed 
description  of,  129-135 
improved,  drying,  128-135 
Sheds,  drying,  description  of,  127,  128 
Shinar,  the  men  of,  on  brick-making, 
19 

Shingle  tiles,  sizes  and  forms  of,  342, 
343 

Shrinkage  of  clay,  equal  to  the  water 
evaporated,  245 

Silica,  free  and  combined  in  fire-clays, 
232,  233 
in  fire-clays,  253 
in  fire-clays,  effect  of,  232 
quantity  of,  in  the  English  coal 
measure  fire-clay,  254 
Silicious  bricks,  process  of  Joseph 
Khern,  247,  248 

Singer,  Mr.,  of  Vauxliall,  patent  for 
forming  tesserm,  407 
Sizes  of  bricks,  variation  in,  in  differ¬ 
ent  localities,  65,  66 
“Slasher,”  description  of,  107 
Smith,  Jas.,  of  Deanton,  plan  of  sur¬ 
face  and  land  drainage,  introduced 
by,  356,  357 

Sockets  on  earthenware  pipes,  machines 
for,  378-394 

“Soil,”  how  used  in  brick-making  in 
England,  57 

Soiling  and  tempering  in  England,  57 
Solomon,  Temple  of,  396 
Sosos,  works  of,  415 
South  America,  materials  in,  for  light 
bricks,  62 

South  American  clays,  poor  quality  of, 
60 

Staffordshire,  England,  glazed  in  pot¬ 
tery,  88,  89 

Stamping  mill,  Carnell’s,  for  fire-clay, 
262,  263 

Steam  coils,  drying  terra-cotta  with,  318 
drying  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  321 
“Stencilling,”  how  to  prepare  the 
stencil,  90 
Strabo,  61 
Street,  G.  E.,  22 

Strength  and  specific  gravity  of  bricks, 
70-72 

Table,  moulding,  description  of,  122, 
123 

Tallcot,  W.  E.  and  Co.,  Croton  Land¬ 
ing,  N.  Y.,  machine,  manufactured 
by,  188-190 


470 


INDEX. 


Tanis,  explorations  on  the  site  of,  21 
Task,  daily,  of  a  moulding  gang,  123 
Taste,  in  building  and  decoration,  95 
Taxation  of  bricks  under  George  III., 
28 

“Temperer,”  duty  of,  106 
Tepipering  and  moulding-machine  for 
fire-bricks,  Gerhard’s,  275,  276 
clay  by  a  pug-mill,  process  of,  113, 
114 

the  clay,  1 06-1 22 
tools  employed  in,  107 
Temporary  brick-kiln,  156-160 
Tenacity  of  texture  in  fire-brick  mate¬ 
rial,  255 

Terra-cotta,  294-326 

a  lasting  evidence  of  the  triumph 
of  man  over  natural  productions, 
296-298 

and  fire-clay  columns,  286 
as  prepared  for  roofing,  300 
blended  with  brick-work  in  Eng¬ 
land  and  the  U.  States,  298 
broken,  repairing,  304 
buff-color  in,  difficulty  of  obtaining, 
323 

buff-colored,  sometimes  obtained 
by  mixing  ground  chalk  with 
ferruginous  clays,  256 
burning,  323,  324 
cement  for  repairing,  304 
chimney  caps,  303 
clay  going  through  the  sweat  in 
burning,  312 
shades  of,  311 
clays,  analyses  of,  306 

preparation  of,  313,  314 
.  vitrifying  ingredients  usually 
added,  313 

crestings,  used  in  England  and  the 
United  States,  300,  301 
critical  period  in  burning,  312 
definition  of,  295 

designs,  truth  an  absolute  neces¬ 
sity  in,  299 
ease  in  moulding,  303 
fireplaces,  301 

for  buildings,  duty  of  the  archi¬ 
tect  in  regard  to,  314,  315 
general  remarks,  294-305 
handling,  303,  304 
in  public  buildings  in  Rome,  297 
kilns,  improvement  in,  324-326 
lumber  made  waterproof  by  use  of 
asphalt,  309 


Terra-cotta,  lumber — 

uses  of,  309,  310 
mantels,  etc.,  designs  of,  303 
manufacture  of,  306-316 
moulding,  314-316 
relief-work  in,  packing  in  quartz 
grains  of  canister,  to  prevent 
warping,  436 
roofing  in  England,  300 
signs  in  London,  cause  of  their 
preservation,  296 
test  for  pure,  304 
time  required  for  burning,  324 
used  for  architectural  decorations, 
294-296 

used  for  public  and  private  records, 
found  in  the  ruins  of  Babylon, 

297 

variety  of  modern  uses  of,  305 
ware,  process  of  drying,  316-322 
works,  largest  in  the  country  at 
Perth  Amboy,  New  Jersey, 
311 

Tesserae,  origin  of  the  word,  416 

Singer’s  patent  for  making,  407, 
408 

Tests  of  bricks,  70-72 
Textures,  to  obtain,  435 
Thebes,  illustrations  of  bricklaying  in 
the  tombs  of,  18 

Thothmes  III.,  stamp  of,  on  Egyptian 
bricks,  21,  22 

Tiffany  Centennial  machine,  illustration 
and  description  of,  360-363 
Tile  barrow,  394 

barrows,  353,  354 
ceilings,  how  to  plaster,  288 
carrier,  Dodd’s  improved,  illus¬ 
tration  and  detailed  description 
of,  384-386 

how  treated  after  being  moulded, 

336 

kilns,  how  to  fill  them  for  burning, 
341 

regulating  the  burning  of,  341 
Low’s  process  for  surfacing,  433- 
438 

machine,  C.  J.  Merrill,  344-349 
first  invented  by  the  Marquis 
of  Tweeddale,  357 
for  using  plastic  clay,  349-353 
horizontal,  Dodd’s  improved 
carrier,  384-386 
Potts’s  illustration  and  detail¬ 
ed  description  of,  357-376 


INDEX. 


471 


Tile  machine — 

Tiffany’s  Centennial,  illustra¬ 
tion  and  description  of,  3 GO- 
363 

making,  process  of,  between  1  2tli 
and  15th  centuries,  412,  413 
roofs,  great  advantages  of,  for  cool¬ 
ness  and  safety,  332 
purity  of  rain  water  from,  3  32 
works,  list  of  products  of,  339 
Tileries,  London,  process  of,  manufac¬ 
ture  in,  340 

Tiles,  American,  424-438 

and  bricks  made  in  Maracaibo,  60 
art  of  making,  brought  by  the  Cru¬ 
saders  from  the  East,  397,  398 
as  insulators,  332 
Biblical  tradition  of,  327 
bricks,  etc.,  different  forms  of,  191, 
192 

decorative,  made  by  J.  G.  Low, 
Chelsea,  Mass.,  426 
decorative,  peculiar  attractions, 
428 

encaustic,  of  the  Middle  Ages,  dif¬ 
ferent  process  from  the  present, 
411 

fire-proof  floor,  290,  291 
flat  and  round,  in  Roman  architec¬ 
ture,  329 

flooring,  process  and  machinery 
for  manufacturing,  438-453 
for  heating  and  ventilating  uses, 
288 

found  in  the  church  at  West  Acre, 
Norfolk,  England,  413 
from  Pompeii  and  Italian  cities, 
gross  designs  upon,  427 
general  remarks  on,  327-334 
glazed,  for  art  purposes,  how  clas¬ 
sified,  405,  406 

great  improvement  in  the  art  since 
the  Philadelphia  Centennial  Ex¬ 
position,  1876,  425 
gutter,  in  use  in  England,  330 
hollow,  applied  to  fire-proofing, 
iron,  and  other  columns,  292, 
293 

hollow  fire-proof,  how  made,  355 
how  glazed,  92 

how  shaped,  after  being  hacked, 
336 

indestructible  and  economical,  334 
introduced  into  the  East  by  the 
Crusaders,  397-399 


Tiles — 

Low’s  premiums  earned  at  Crewe, 
England,  and  other  exhibi¬ 
tions,  429 
specimens  of,  428 
made  at  Chelsea,  Mass.,  424 
Malkin’s  process  for  making  plain 
and  inlaid,  414 

marble,  as  used  by  the  Greek  and 
Romans,  329 

used  in  Greece,  620  B.  C., 
328 

moulding,  336 

objections  to,  fully  met  by  im¬ 
proved  product,  337 
old  specimens  of,  in  England,  413 
ornamental,  395-453 
plain,  now  in  general  use  in  Eng¬ 
land,  329 

Roman,  in  first  century  of  the 
Christian  era,  25 
roof,  343 
roofing,  300 

process  of  drying,  337 

of  manufacturing,  334- 
354 

shingle,  sizes  and  forms  of,  342, 
343 

sizes  and  how  laid,  343 
sliding,  substitute  for  weather¬ 
boarding,  330 

tests  of  pressure  of,  by  Gen.  M.  C. 
Meigs,  289 

tubular,  employed  by  the  Romans, 
355 

used  for  decorations  in  churches  in 
mediaeval  times,  397 
usual  colors  of,  and  how  colored, 
341,  342 

various  forms  for  roofing,  333 
weather,  330 

with  grooves  and  fillets,  objections 
to,  329 

Tiling,  ornamental,  historical  account 
of,395-414 

Tools  used  by  a  hand-made  brick  gang, 
124,  125 

Tower  of  Babel,  bricks  used  in  build¬ 
ing,  19 

burned  bricks  used  in  build¬ 
ing  of,  24 

Towns,  of  what  materials  generally 
built,  29 

Triple  pressure  brick  machine,  Gregg’s, 
179-181 


472 


INDEX. 


Truth,  an  absolute  necessity  in  terra¬ 
cotta  designs,  299 

Tufa,  volcanic  material  for  light  fire- 
proof  bricks,  62 

Tuileries  in  Paris,  origin  of  its  name, 
332 

United  States  Government,  test  of 
bricks  required  by,  101 
materials  in,  for  light  bricks,  62 
Pension  Office  at  Washing¬ 
ton,  I).  C.,  columns  in,  286 
tests  of  bricks  for, 
71,  72 

Urbs  pensilis  in  time  of  Pliny,  357 
Utrecht,  building  bricks  made  at,  58 

Yan  T wilier,  Wouter,  first  brick  build¬ 
ings  erected  by,  in  this  country,  29-30 
Vasari,  403 

Verulamium,  old  materials  from,'  re¬ 
used,  26 

Virginia,  good  brick  clay  found  in,  31 
iron  foundry  and  glass-house  built 
of  bricks  in  1622,  31 
no  attempt  of  the  first  colonists  to 
make  bricks  in,  31 
quality  of  clay  in,  45 
Vitreous  colors  for  ornamenting  bricks 
and  tiles,  84-86 

Vitrification  in  fire-bricks  assisted  by 
tenacity  of  texture  in  the  material, 
255 

w  ages  of  brick-layers  and  carpenters 
in  New  England,  in  1630,  30 
of  brick-layers  in  Philadelphia,  in 
1705,  32 

Wall  of  China,  bricks  employed  in  con¬ 
struction  of,  23 
tiles,  fixing,  437 
Roman,  how  built,  26 


“Watch,”  duration  of,  151 
Water  smoke,  changes  in  the,  145 
Watson,  Jno.,  of  Camden,  N.  J.,  un¬ 
successful  experiments  in  making 
zinc,  cause  of,  242 

AVeather-boarding,  tiles  as  a  substitute 
for,  330 

AVestern  Brick  and  Tile  Co.,  works  of, 
181 

Europe,  no  brick  buildings  now  in 
existence,  built  earlier  than  11th 
century,  27 

Westminster  Abbey,  mosaic  paving  in, 
46 

AAretherill,  Jno.,  final  success  in  zinc 
manufacture  by  the  use  of  good 
retorts,  242,  243 

Jno.,  of  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  causes  of 
his  unsuccess,  242 
AVheelbarrow  folding,  137-139 
AVheelbarrows,  description  of,  135-140 
Woodbridge,  N.  J.,  clay  at,  311 
AVyatt,  F.  J.,  patent  imitation  of  tesse- 
lated  pavements,  407 
Parker  &  Co.,  pavements  made 
by,  good  quality  of,  408 

Xerxes,  395,  396 

Zinc,  failure  of  the  Belgian  method  in 
the  United  States,  242 
failure  of  the  Silesian  plan  at  the 
Lehigh  Co.’s  works,  242 
imperfect  retorts  retarding  its  pro¬ 
duction,  241 

manufacture  in  the  United  States, 
early  attempts  at,  242,  243 
success  of  Ur.  Isaac  Lawson,  241, 
242 

when  first  made  in  the  United 
States,  242 


i 


ALL  KINDS  OF 


CONSTANTLY  ON  HAND, 


ORDERS  CAREFULLY  AND 
PROMPTLY  EXECUTED. 


Philadelphia,  Pa. 

U.S.  A. 


m/mmm/my 


. . .  v///////////  '//a 


L  F  V  Y  T  rfif  ZO.  Pti/iTf 


Ornamental  and  Front  Brick  made  on  the  Gregg  Machines. 


The  “Peerless”  Brick  Press 


TD  BRICK  MANUFACTURERS: 

The  attention  of  the  Brick  Trade  is  invited  to  my  Improved 
“  PEERLESS  ”  BRICK  PRESS,  feeling  assured  that  a  trial,  or  even  an 
inspection  of  its  mode  of  working,  will  prove  its  superiority,  for  dura¬ 
bility  and  excellence  of  work,  over  all  others  in  use. 

It  is  so  constructed  as  to  unite  great  strength  with  easy  adjustment, 
and  is  warmly  commended  for  these  qualities  wherever  used. 

The  Peerless  Brick  Company  of  this  city  use  them  exclusively  at 
their  extensive  works.  The  superintendent  writes  me  :  “  I  greatly  prefer 
them  to  any  other  presses  I  have  ever  seen  or  used.” 

While  desiring  to  say  nothing  disparagingly  of  other  Brick  Presses, 
yet  I  cannot  refrain  from  expressing  a  desire  that  before  purchasing  you 
will  compare  the  mode  of  construction  of  my  Press  with  any  other  in  the 
market,  knowing  that  you  will  then  be  convinced  of  the  truth  of  all  I  claim. 
Presses  constantly  on  hand. 

Respectfully, 

JOHN  CRABTREE,  Patentee  and  Builder. 

S.  E.  Cor.  Trenton  Avenue  and  Adams  Street,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


Peerless  Brick  Co. 

(Office,  1003  Walnut  Street,) 

PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

MANUFACTURE 

MOLDED/  FINE  PRESSED  FRONT  BRICKS 

In  RED,  BUFF,  GRAY,  FUESH  and  BROWN  (all  solid  colors), 
also  BLACK — on  surface. 

Illustrated  Catalogues,  containing  upwards  of  two  hundred  patterns  of  Molded  Bricks, 
sent  free  to  any  address  upon  application. 

ARE  ALSO  PATENTEES  AND  MANUFACTURERS  OF  THE 

PEERLESS  BRICK  MACHINE. 


Descriptive  Circular,  with  cut,  furnished  on  application. 
For  cuts  of  Bricks  and  Machine,  see  pages  93,  94, 199. 


Chambers,  Bro.  &  Co., 

PHILADELPHIA. 


BRICK  MACHINES 

ERECTED  SUBJECT  TO  THIRTY  DAYS’  TRIAL  AND  APPROVAL. 

Size  “  B,”  45,ooo,  Size  “  C,”  25,000,  Size  “  C  D,”  10,000  per  day  guaranteed 

Kiln  Castings.  Brick  Cars  and  Dryers.  Brick  Presses. 


(See  pages  200-216.) 


PHILADELPHIA  BRICK  MACHINE  WORKS. 


GEORGE  CARNELL, 

1819-1821  Germantown  Ave.  and  Fifth  St.,  Philadelphia, 


RED  BRICK  PRESS. 


MANUFACTURER  OF 

Brick  Machines, 

Stamping  Machines, 

Clay  Tempering  Machines. 
Tile  Machines, 

Brick  Presses  for  Fire  or 
Red  Brick, 

Clay  Wheels. 


BRICKMAKERS’  TOOLS 

OF  EVERY  DESCRIPTION. 


These  Tempering  Machines  can  he  driven  either  by  steam  or  horse  power. 
The  latest  improvement  requires  two-thirds  less  power  to  run  than  the 
old  style  steam  gearing,  and  is  fitted  up  ten  per  cent,  cheaper. 


Send  for  Illustrated  Catalogue. 


W.  E.  TALLCOT  &  CO., 

MANUFACTURERS  OF 

IMPROVED  BRICKMAKING  MACHINERY 

for  Steam,  Horse  and  Hand  Power. 

\  also 

BRICKYARD  EQUIPMENTS  OP  ALL  KINDS. 

Works  at  Croton  Landing,  N.  Y. 


See  Pace  188. 


Send  for  Circular. 


The  two  cylinders,  one  marked  slow  cylinder  or  feeder , 
and  one,  fast  cylinder  or  grinder ,  fitted  with  cutters,  illustrate 
the  working  of  our  Mill. 


ADDRESS, 

NEWELL  UNIVERSAL  MILL  CO., 

No.  lO  Barclay  Street, 

NEW  YORK  CITY. 


FREY,  SHECKLER  ANE  HD  DYER, 

Proprietors  of  the  EAGLE  MACHINE  WORKS,  Bucyrus,  Ohio,  U.  S.  A. 

Manufacturers  of  CLAY  MACHINERY.  ENGINES,  Etc. 


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BLAKE  CRUSHERS, 

All  Styles  and  Sizes. 


We  furnish  Crushing  Machinery  to  reduce  hard  and 
brittle  substances  to  any  degree  of  fineness  that  may 
be  required. 

For  circulars  and  information,  address, 

Blake  Crusher 

New  Haven,  Conn. 


CATALOGUE 

OF 


PRACTICAL  I  SCIENTIFIC 


PUBLISHED  BY 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  *  CO.. 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS,  BOOKSELLERS  AND  IMPORTERS, 


810  WALNUT  STEEET, 

PHILADELPHIA. 


Any  of  the  Books  comprised  in  this  Catalogue  will  be  sent  free  of 
postage  at  the  printed  prices  to  any  address  in  the  World. 

A  Descriptive  Catalogue,  96  pages,  8vo.,  and  our  other  Catalogues, 
the  whole  covering  all  of  the  branches  of  Science  Applied  to  the 
Arts,  sent  free  and  free  of  postage  to  any  one  in  any  part 
of  the  world,  who  will  furnish  us  with  his  address. 

Where  not  otherwise  stated,  all  of  the  Books  in  this  Catalogue  are 
bound  in  muslin. 


In  Press  for  Early  Publication.  A  new,  original,  and  thorough  Ainer- 
ican  book  on  Bricks ,  Tiles,  Terra  Cotta,  etc. 

A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE 
OF  BRICKS,  TILES,  TERRA  COTTA,  ETC. 

Including  Commpn,  Ornamentally  Shaped  and  Enamelled  Bricks, 
Drain  Pipes,  Fire  Clays,  Fire  Bricks,  Terra  Cotta,  Roofing  Tiles,  Floor¬ 
ing  Tiles,  and  Art  Tiles;  comprising  every  important  product  of  Clay 
employed  in  Architecture,  Engineering,  the  Blast  Furnace,  for  Retorts, 
etc.,  with  a  History  and  the  Actual  Processes  in  Handling,  Disintegrat¬ 
ing,  Tempering  and  Moulding  the  Clay  into  Shape,  Drying  Naturally 
and  Artificially,  Burning,  Enamelling  in  Polychrome  Colors,  with  Glass 
and  Porcelain,  etc.,  including  full  detailed  descriptions  of  the  most  mod¬ 
ern  machines  and  tools  used.  By  Charles  Thomas  Davis.  Illus¬ 
trated  by  228  Engravings  and  several  Plates.  In  one  volume,  8vo.,  of 
about  500  pages.  Handsomely  printed  on  fine  paper  and  bound  in  cloth. 

Contents: — Chapter  I.  The  History  of  Bricks.  Chapter  II.  The  different  varie¬ 
ties  of  Clay;  their  characteristics,  qualities  and  localities.  Chapter  III.  Section  1. 
General  Remarks  concerning  Bricks,  their  sizes,  strength  and  other  qualities.  Section 
2.  Enamelling  and  Glazing  of  Bricks,  Tiles,  having  Plain  and  Uneven  Surfaces,  Earth¬ 
enware,  etc.  Section  3.  Blue  Bricks.  Chapter  IV.  The  Manufacture  of  Bricks  by 
the  Hand  Process.  Section  1.  General  Remarks.  Section  2.  Preparation  of  the  Clay. 
Section  3.  Tempering  the  Clay.  Section  4.  Moulding.  Sections.  Drying  of  Bricks. 
Section  6.  Description  of  Wheelbarrows,  Setting  and  Burning  the  Bricks,  Improve¬ 
ments  in  Constructing  permanent  and  temporary  Kilns.  Section  7.  Improvements  in 
Kiln  Roofs.  Chapter  V.  Manufacturing  Bricks  by  the  Machine  Process,  Disinte¬ 
grating  Mills,  Descriptions  of  Brick  Machines,  Cars  for  Hauling,  and  Tunnels  for 
Drying  Machine-made  Bricks,  etc.  Chapter  VI.  Fire  Clays,  Fire  Bricks  and  other 
Products,  and  the  necessary  Machines  and  Plans  of  Improved  Regenerative  Kilns  for 
Burning  Fire  Clay  Wares,  etc.  Chapter  VII.  Terra  Cotta.  Section  1.  General  Re¬ 
marks.  Section  2.  The  Manufacture  of  Terra  Cotta.  Section  3.  Drying  Section 
4.  Burning.  Section  5.  Improvement  in  the  Construction  of  Terra  Cotta  Kilns. 
Chapter  VIII.  The  Manufacture  of  Roofing  Tiles  and  Sewer  Pipes.  Section  1.  Gen¬ 
eral  Remarks.  Section  2.  The  Process  of  Manufacturing  Roofing  Tiles.  Section  3. 
The  Manufacture  of  Drain  Pipes.  Section  4.  Machines  for  Forming  Sockets  on  and 
Making  Curved  Earthenware  Pipes.  Chapter  IX.  Ornamental  Tiles,  etc.  Section 
1.  General  Remarks.  Section  2.  The  Manufacture  of  Mosaics  and  Imitation  Inlaid 
or  Intarsia  Surfaces.  Section  3.  American  Tiles.  Section  4.  Process  and  Machinery 
for  Manufacturing  Flooring  Tiles.  Index. 

Subscriptions  will  be  received  in  advance  of  publication,  at  85.00  per 
copy,  payable  on  delivery. 


A  new,  original  and  exhaustive  American  book  on  the  Manufacture 

of  Leather. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  LEATHER. 

Being  a  description  of  all  of  the  Processes  for  the  Tanning,  Currying 
and  Finishing  of  Leather;  including  the  Various  Raw  Materials  and  the 
Methods  for  Determining  their  Values;  the  Tools,  Machines,  and  all 
Matters  of  Importance  connected  with  an  Intelligent  and  Profitable 
Prosecution  of  the  Art,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Best  American 
Practice.  To  which  is  added  a  List  of  American  Patents  for  Materials, 
Processes,  Tools  and  Machines  for  Tanning,  Currying,  etc.  By 
Charles  T.  Davis.  Illustrated  by  about  300  Engravings.  In  one 
volume,  8vo.,  of  about  800  pages.  Handsomely  printed  on  fine  paper, 
and  bound  in  cloth. 

Subscriptions  will  be  received  in  advance  of  publication,  at  810.00  per 
copy,  payable  on  delivery. 


T\  ' *.  -  V\ 


C^T^LOGrTTIE 

OF 

practical  and  Scientific  Boolp 

PUBLISHED  BY 

Henry  Carey  Baird  &  Co. 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS,  BOOKSELLERS  AND  IMPORTERS, 

810  Walnut  Street,  Philadelphia. 


Any  of  the  Books  comprised  in  this  Catalogue  will  he  sent  by  mail,  free 
postage,  to  any  address  in  the  world,  at  the  publication  prices, 

A  Descriptive  Catalogue,  96  pages,  8vo,,  will  be  sent  free  and  free  of  postage, 
to  any  one  in  any  part  of  the  world,  who  will  furnish  his  address. 

Where  not  otherwise  stated,  all  of  the  Books  in  this  Catalogue  are  bound 

in  muslin. 


AMATEUR  MECHANICS’  WORKSHOP: 

A  treatise  containing  plain  and  concise  directions  for  the  manipula¬ 
tion  of  Wood  and  Metals,  including  Casting,  Forging,  Brazing, 
Soldering  and  Carpentry.  By  the  author  of  the  “  Lathe  and  Its 
Uses.”  Third  edition.  Illustrated.  8vo.  .  .  .  $3. 00 

ANDRES. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Fabrication  of  Volatile 
and  Fat  Varnishes,  Lacquers,  Siccatives  and  Sealing 
Waxes. 

From  the  German  of  Erwin  Andres,  Manufacturer  of  Varnishes 
and  Lacquers.  With  additions  on  the  Manufacture  and  Application 
of  Varnishes,  Stains  for  Wood,  Horn,  Ivory,  Bone  and  Leather. 
From  the  German  of  Dr.  Emil  Winckler  and  Louis  E.  Andes. 
The  whole  translated  and  edited  by  William  T.  Brannt.  With  11 
illustrations.  i2mo.  ........  $2.50 

ARLOT. — A  Complete  Guide  for  Coach  Painters : 

Translated  from  the  French  of  M.  Arlot,  Coach  Painter;  for 
eleven  years  Foreman  of  Painting  to  M.  Eherler,  Coach  Maker,  • 
Paris.  By  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  To  which  is 
added  an  Appendix,  containing  Information  respecting  the  Materials 
and  the  Practice  of  Coach  and  Car  Painting  and  Varnishing  in  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain.  i2mo.  .  .  .  $1.25 


(0 


2 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


ARMENGAUD,  AMOROUX,  AND  JOHNSON.— The  Practi¬ 
cal  Draughtsman’s  Book  of  Industrial  Design,  and  Ma¬ 
chinist’s  and  Engineer’s  Drawing  Companion  : 

Forming  a  Complete  Course  of  Mechanical  Engineering  and  Archi¬ 
tectural  Drawing.  From  the  French  of  M.  Armengaud  the  elder. 
Prof,  of  Design  in  the  Conservatoire  of  Arts  and  Industry,  Paris,  and 
MM.  Armengaud  the  younger,  and  Amoroux,  Civil  Engineers.  Re¬ 
written  and  arranged  with  additional  matter  and  plates,  selections  from 
and  examples  of  the  most  useful  and  generally  employed  mechanism 
of  the  day.  By  William  Johnson,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.  Illustrated  * 
by  fifty  folio  steel  plates,  and  fifty  wood-cuts.  A  new  edition,  4to., 
half  morocco  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  #10.00 

ARMSTRONG. — The  Construction  and  Management  of  Steam 
Boilers : 

By  R.  Armstrong,  C.  E.  With  an  Appendix  by  Robert  Mallet, 

C.  E.,  F.  R.  S.  Seventh  Edition.  Illustrated.  I  vol.  l2mo.  75 

ARRO WSMITH. — Paper-Hanger’s  Companion : 

A  Treatise  in  which  the  Practical  Operations  of  the  Trade  are 
Systematically  laid  down :  with  Copious  Directions  Preparatory  to 
Papering;  Preventives  against  the  Effect  of  Damp  on  Walls;  the 
various  Cements  and  Pastes  Adapted  to  the  Several  Purposes  of 
the  Trade ;  Observations  and  Directions  for  the  Panelling  and 
Ornamenting  of  Rooms,  etc.  By  James  Arrowsmith.  i2mo., 
cloth . ^1.25 

ASHTON. — The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Art  of  Designing 
Fancy  Cotton  and  Woollen  Cloths  from  Sample : 

Giving  full  instructions  for  reducing  drafts,  as  well  as  the  methods  of 
spooling  and  making  out  harness  for  cross  drafts  and  finding  any  re¬ 
quired  reed;  with  calculations  and  tables  of  yarn.  By  Frederic  T. 
Ashton,  Designer,  West  Pittsfield,  Mass.  With  fifty-two  illustrations. 
One  vol.  folio  ........  5l°.°o 

AUERBACH— CROOKES.— Anthracen : 

Its  Constitution,  Properties,  Manufacture  and  Derivatives,  including 
Artificial  Alizarin,  Anthrapurpurin,  etc.,  with  their  applications  in 
Dyeing  and  Printing.  By  G.  Auerbach.  Translated  and  edited 
fiom  the  revised  manuscript  of  the  Author,  by  Wm.  Crookes,  F.  R. 

S.,  Vice-President  of  the  Chemical  Society.  8vo.  .  .  $5-00 

BAIRD. — Miscellaneous  Papers  on  Economic  Questions. 

By  Henry  Carey  Baird.  (/« preparation.') 

BAIRD. — The  American  Cotton  Spinner,  and  Manager’s  and 
Cafder’s  Guide: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Cotton  Spinning;  giving  the  Dimensions  and 
Speed  of  Machinery,  Draught  and  Twist  Calculations,  etc.;  with 
notices  of  recent  Improvements:  together  with  Rules  and  Examples 
for  making  changes  in  the  sizes  and  numbers  of  Roving  and  Yarn. 
Compiled  from  the  papers  of  the  late  Robert  H.  Baird.  121110. 

51.50 

\ 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


2 


BAIRD. — Standard  Wages  Computing  Tables  : 

An  Improvement  in  all  former  Methods  of  Computation,  so  arranged 
that  wages  for  days,  hours,  or  fractions  of  hours,  at  a  specified  rate 
per  day  or  hour,  may  be  ascertained  at  a  glance.  By  T.  Spangler 

Baird.  Oblong  folio  . . $5.00 

BAKER. — Long-Span  Railway  Bridges: 

Comprising  Investigations  of  the  Comparative  Theoretical  and 
Practical  Advantages  of  the  various  Adopted  or  Proposed  Type 
Systems  of  Construction;  with  numerous  Formulae  and  Tables.  By 

B.  Baker.  i2mo.  . $1.50 

BAKER. — The  Mathematical  Theory  of  the  Steam-Engine  : 
With  Rules  at  length,  and  Examples  worked  out  for  the  use  ol 
Practical  Men.  By  T.  Baker,  C.  E.,  with  numerous  Diagrams. 
Sixth  Edition,  Revised  by  Prof.  J.  R.  Young.  i2mo.  .  75 

BARLOW. — The  History  and  Principles  of  Weaving,  by 
Hand  and  by  Power : 

Reprinted,  with  Considerable  Additions,  from  “  Engineering,”  with 
a  chapter  on  Lace-making  Machinery,  reprinted  from  the  Journal  of 
the  “Society  of  Arts.”  By  Alfred  Barlow.  With  several  hundred 

illustrations.  8vo.,  443  pages  810.00 

BARR. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Combustion  of  Coal: 
Including  descriptions  of  various  mechanical  devices  for  the  Eco¬ 
nomic  Generation  of  Heat  by  the  Combustion  of  Fuel,  whether  solid, 
liquid  or  gaseous.  8vo.  .......  82.50 

BARR. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  High  Pressure  Steam  Boilers: 
Including  Results  of  Recent  Experimental  Tests  of  Boiler  Materials, 
together  with  a  Description  of  Approved  Safety  Apparatus,  Steam 
Pumps,  Injectors  and  Economizers  in  actual  use.  By  Wm.  M.  Barr. 
204  Illustrations.  8vo.  .  .  .  , .  •  ■  •  $3-°° 

BAUERMAN.-A  Treatise  on  the  Metallurgy  of  Iron  : 

Containing  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Iron  Manufacture,  Methods  of 
Assay,  and  Analysis  of  Iron  Ores,  Processes  of  Manufacture  of  Iron 
and  Steel,  etc.,  etc.  By  H.  Bauerman,  F.  G.  S.,  Associate  of  the 
Royal  School  of  Mines.  Fifth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
Illustrated  with  numerous  Wood  Engravings  from  Drawings  by  J.  B. 

Jordan.  . . 82.00 

BAYLES.— House  Drainage  and  Water  Service  : 

In  Cities,  Villages  and  Rural  Neighborhoods.  With  Incidental  Con. 
sideration  of  Certain  Causes  Affecting  the  Healthfulness  of  Dwell, 
ings.  By  James  C.  Bayles,  Editor  of  “  The  Iron  Age  ”  and  “  The 
Metal  Worker.”  With  numerous  illustrations.  8vo.  cloth,  83-°° 
BEANS. — A  Treatise  on  Railway  Curves  and  Location  of 
Railroads : 

By  E.  W.  Beans,  C.  E.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  Tucks  .  81.5c* 

BECKETT. — A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  Clocks,  and  Watches 


and  Bells :  „  , 

By  Sir  Edmund  Beckett,  Bart.,  IX.  D.,  Q.  C.  F.  R.  A.  S.  With 
numerous  illustrations.  Seventh  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 


4 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


BELL. — Carpentry  Made  Easy: 

Or,  The  Science  and  Art  of  Framing  on  a  New  and  Improved 
System.  With  Specific  Instructions  for  Building  Balloon  Frames,  Barn 
Frames,  Mill  Frames,  Warehouses,  Church  Spires,  etc.  Comprising 
also  a  System  of  Bridge  Building,  with  Bills,  Estimates  of  Cost,  and 
valuable  Tables.  Illustrated  by  forty-four  plates,  comprising  nearly 
200  figures.  By  William  E.  Bell,  Architect  and  Practical  Builder. 
8vo.  ...  .......  $5.00 

BEMROSE. — Fret-Cutting  and  Perforated  Carving: 

With  fifty-three  practical  illustrations.  By  W.  Bemrose,  Jr.  I  vol. 
quarto  ..........  $3. 00 

BEMROSE. — Manual  of  Buhl-work  and  Marquetry: 

With  Practical  Instructions  for  Learners,  and  ninety  colored  designs. 
By  W.  Bemrose,  Jr.  i  vol.  quarto  ....  #3.00 

BEMROSE. — Manual  of  Wood  Carving: 

With  Practical  Illustrations  for  Learners  of  the  Art,  and  Original  and 
Selected  Designs.  By  William  Bemrose,  Jr.  With  an  Intro¬ 
duction  by  Llewellyn  Jewitt,  F.  S.  A.,  etc.  With  128  illustra¬ 
tions,  4to.  . . .  $3.00 

BILLINGS.— Tobacco : 

Its  History,  Variety,  Culture,  Manufacture,  Commerce,  and  Various 
Modes  of  Use.  By  E.  R.  Billings.  Illustrated  by  nearly  200 

engravings.  8vo.  .  . . .  $3-00 

BIRD. — The  American  Practical  Dyers’  Companion: 

Comprising  a  Description  of  the  Principal  Dye-Stuffs  and  Chemicals 
used  in  Dyeing,  their  Natures  and  Uses ;  Mordants,  and  How  Made ; 
with  the  best  American,  English,  French  and  German  processes  for 
Bleaching  and  Dyeing  Silk,  Wool,  Cotton,  Linen,  Flannel,  Felt, 
Dress  Goods,  Mixed  and  Hosiery  Yarns,  Feathers,  Grass,  Felt,  Fur, 
Wool,  and  Straw  Hats,  Jute  Yarn,  Vegetable  Ivory,  Mats,  Skins, 
Furs,  Leather,  etc.,  etc.  By  Wood,  Aniline,  and  other  Processes, 
together  with  Remarks  on  Finishing  Agents,  and  Instructions  in  the 
Finishing  of  Fabrics,  Substitutes  for  Indigo,  Water-Proofing  of 
Materials,  Tests  and  Purification  of  Water,  Manufacture  of  Aniline 
and  other  New  Dye  Wares,  Harmonizing  Colors,  etc.,  etc. ;  embrac¬ 
ing  in  all  over  800  Receipts  for  Colors  and  Shades,  accompanied  by 
1 7°  Dyed  Samples  of  Raw  Materials  and  Fabrics.  By  F.  J.  Bird, 
Practical  Dyer,  Author  of  “  The  Dyers’  Hand-Book.”  8vo.  810.00 

BLENKARN. — Practical  Specifications  of  Works  executed  in 
Architecture,  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineering,  and  in 
Road  Making  and  Sewering: 

To  which  are  added  a  series  of  practically  useful  Agreements  and 
Reports.  By  John  Blenkarn.  Illustrated  by  fifteen  large  folding 
plates.  8vo . 89.00 

B LINN.— A  Practical  Workshop  Companion  for  Tin,  Sheet- 
Iron,  and  Copper-plate  Wforkers  : 

Containing  Rules  for  describing  various  kinds  of  Patterns  used  by 
Tin,  Sheet-Iron  and  Copper-plate  Workers;  Practical  Geometry; 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


5 


Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids ;  Tables  of  the  Weights  of 
Metals,  Lead-pipe,  etc. ;  Tables  of  Areas  and  Circumference? 
of  Circles;  Japan,  Varnishes,  Lackers,  Cements,  Compositions,  etc., 
etc.  By  Leroy  J.  Blinn,  Master  Mechanic.  With  over  One 
Hundred  Illustrations.  i2mo.  .....  $2.50 

BOOTH. — Marble  Worker’s  Manual : 

Containing  Practical  Information  respecting  Marbles  in  general,  their 
Cutting,  Working  and  Polishing;  Veneering  of  Marble;  Mosaics; 
Composition  and  Use  of  Artificial  Marble,  Stuccos,  Cements,  Receipts, 
Secrets,  etc.,  etc.  Translated  from  the  French  by  M.  L.  Booth. 
With  an  Appendix  concerning  American  Marbles.  i2mo.,  cloth  $1.50 
BOOTH  and  MORFIT. — The  Encyclopaedia  of  Chemistry, 
Practical  and  Theoretical : 

Embracing  its  application  to  the  Arts,  Metallurgy,  Mineralogy, 
Geology,  Medicine  and  Pharmacy.  By  James  C.  Booth,  Melter 
and  Refiner  in  the  United  States  Mint,  Professor  of  Applied  Chem¬ 
istry  in  the  Franklin  Institute,  etc.,  assisted  by  Campbell  Morfit, 
author  of  “  Chemical  Manipulations,”  etc.  Seventh  Edition.  Com¬ 
plete  in  one  volume,  royal  8vo.,  978  pages,  with  numerous  wood-cuts 
and  other  illustrations  .......  $5.00 

BRAM  WELL.— The  Wool  Carder’s  Vade-Mecum  : 

A  Complete  Manual  of  the  Art  of  Carding  Textile  Fabrics.  By  W. 
C.  Bramwell.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrated, 
pp.  400.  i2mo.  ........  $2.50 

BRANNT. — The  Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book: 

Containing  several  thousand  Receipts  comprising  the  latest  and  most 
useful  discoveries  in  Chemical  Technology  and  Industry.  Edited 
from  the  German  of  Drs.  E.  Winckler,  HEiNTZEand  Mierzinski, 
with  additions  by  W.  T.  Brannt.  ( In  preparation.) 

BROWN. — Five  Hundred  and  Seven  Mechanical  Movements: 
Embracing  all  those  which  are  most  important  in  Dynamics,  Hy¬ 
draulics,  Hydrostatics,  Pneumatics,  Steam-Engines,  Mill  and  other 
Gearing,  Presses,  Horology  and  Miscellaneous  Machinery ;  and  in¬ 
cluding  many  movements  never  before  published,  and  several  of 
which  have  only  recently  come  into  use.  By  Henry  T.  Brown. 
i2mo.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  •  .  .  $1.00 

BUCKMASTER. — The  Elements  of  Mechanical  Physics  : 

By  J.  C.  Buckmaster.  Illustrated  with  numerous  engravings. 
l2mo.  ..........  $1.5° 

BULLOCK. — The  American  Cottage  Builder  : 

A  Series  of  Designs,  Plans  and  Specifications,  from  $200  to  $20,000, 
for  Homes  for  the  People;  together  with  Warming,  Ventilation, 
Drainage,  Painting  and  Landscape  Gardening.  By  John  Bullock, 
Architect  and  Editor  of  “  The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and 
Building,”  etc.,  etc.  Illustrated  by  75  engravings.  8vo.  $3. 50 

BULLOCK. — The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and  Building: 
For  the  use  of  Architects,  Builders,  Draughtsmen,  Machinists,  En¬ 
gineers  and  Mechanics.  Edited  by  John  Bullock,  author  of  “The 
American  Cottage  Builder.”  Illustrated  by  250  Engravings.  8vo.  $3.50 


6  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


BURGH.— Practical  Rules  for  the  Proportions  of  Modern 
Engines  and  Boilers  for  Land  and  Marine  Purposes. 

By  N.  P.  Burgh,  Engineer.  i2mo.  .  .  .  .  $1.50 

BURNS. — The  American  Woolen  Manufacturer: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Woolens,  in  two  parts. 
Part  First  gives  full  and  explicit  instructions  upon  Drafting,  Cross- 
Drawing,  Combining  Weaves,  and  the  correct  arrangement  of  Weights, 
Colors  and  Sizes  of  Yarns  to  produce  any  desired  fabric.  Illustrated 
with  diagrams  of  various  weavings,  and  twelve  samples  of  cloth  for 
explanation  and  practice.  Part  Second  is  fully  supplied  with  ex¬ 
tended  Tables,  Rules,  Examples,  Explanations,  etc.;  gives  full  and 
practical  information,  in  detailed  order,  from  the  stock  department  to 
the  market,  of  the  proper  selection  and  use  of  the  various  grades  and 
staples  of  wool,  with  the  admixture  of  waste,  cotton  and  shoddy;  and 
the  proper  application  and  economical  use  of  the  various  oils,  drugs, 
dye  stuffs,  soaps,  belting,  etc.  Also,  the  most  approved  method  for 
Calculating  and  Estimating  the  Cost  of  Goods,  for  all  Wool,  Wool 
Waste  and  Cotton  and  Cotton  Warps.  With  Examples  and  Calcula¬ 
tions  on  the  Circular  motions  of  Wheels,  Pinions,  Drums,  Pulleys 
and  Gears,  how  to  speed  them,  etc.  The  two  parts  combined  form  a 
whole  work  on  the  American  way  of  manufacturing  more  complete 
than  any  yet  issued.  By  George  C.  Burns.  8vo.  .  .  86.50 

BYLES. — Sophisms  of  Free  Trade  and  Popular  Political 
Economy  Examined. 

By  a  Barrister  (Sir  John  Barnard  Byles,  Judge  of  Common 
Pleas).  From  the  Ninth  English  Edition,  as  published  by  the 
Manchester  Reciprocity  Association.  i2mo.  .  .  .  81.25 

BYRN. — The  Complete  Practical  Brewer: 

Or  Plain,  Accurate  and  Thorough  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Brewing 
Beer,  Ale,  Porter,  including  the  Process  of  Making  Bavarian  Beer, 
all  the  Small  Beers,  such  as  Root-beer,  Ginger-pop,  Sarsaparilla-beer,. 
Mead,  Spruce  Beer,  etc.  Adapted  to  the  use  of  Public  Brewers  and 
Private  Families.  By  M.  La  Fayette  Byrn,  M.  D.  With  illus¬ 
trations.  i2mo . • 

BYRN. — The  Complete  Practical  Distiller: 

Comprising  the-  most  perfect  and  exact  Theoretical  and  Practical  De¬ 
scription  of  the  Art  of  Distillation  and  Rectification;  including  all  of 
the  most  recent  improvements  in  distilling  apparatus;  instructions  for 
preparing  spirits  from  the  numerous  vegetables,  fruits,  etc  ;  directions 
for  the  distillation  and  preparation  of  all  kinds  of  brandies  and  other 
spirits,  spirituous  and  other  compounds,  etc.  By  M.  La  Fayette 
Byrn,  M.  D.  Eighth  Edition.  To  which  are  added  Practical 
Directions  for  Distilling,  from  the  French  of  Th.  Fling,  Brewer  and 

Distiller.  i2mo . •  .  .81.50 

BYRNE. — Hand-Book  for  the  Artisan,  Mechanic,  and  Engi¬ 
neer: 

Comprising  the  Grinding  and  Sharpening  of  Cutting  Tools,  Abrasive 
Processes,  Lapidary  Work,  Gem  and  Glass  Engraving,  Varnishing 
and  Lackering,  Apparatus,  Materials  and  Processes  for  Grinding  and 

\ 


i 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


7 


Polishing,  etc.  By  Oliver  Byrne.  Illustrated  by  185  wood  en¬ 
gravings.  8vo . $5.00 

BYRNE. — Pocket-Book  for  Railroad  and  Civil  Engineers : 

Containing  New,  Exact  and  Concise  Methods  for  Laying  out  Railroad 
Curves,  Switches,  Frog  Angles  and  Crossings;  the  Staking  out  of 
work;  Levelling;  the  Calculation  of  Cuttings;  Embankments;  Earth¬ 
work,  etc.  By  Oliver  Byrne.  i8mo.,  full  bound,  pocket-book 

form  . . .  .  .  #1.75 

BYRNE. — The  Practical  Metal-Worker’s  Assistant: 

Comprising  Metallurgic  Chemistry;  the  Arts  of  Working  all  Metals 
and  Alloys  ;  Forging  of  Iron  and  Steel ;  Hardening  and  Tempering  ; 
Melting  and  Mixing;  Casting  and  Founding;  Works  in  Sheet  Metal; 
the  Processes  Dependent  on  the  Ductility  of  the  Metals;  Soldering; 
and  the  most  Improved  Processes  and  Tools  employed  by  Metal- 
Workers.  With  the  Application  of  the  Art  of  Electro-Metallurgy  to 
Manufacturing  Processes ;  collected  from  Original  Sources,  and  from 
the  works  of  Holtzapffel,  Bergeron,  Leupold,  Plunder,  Napier, 
Scoffern,  Clay,  Fairbairn  and  others.  By  Oliver  Byrne.  A  new, 
revised  and  improved  edition,  to  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  con¬ 
taining  The  Manufacture  of  Russian  Sheet-Iron.  By  John  Pero'Y, 
M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  The  Manufacture  of  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  and 
Improvements  in  Bessemer  Steel.  By  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and 
Engineer.  With  over  Six  Hundred  Engravings,  Illustrating  every 


Branch  of  the  Subject.  8vo . $7.00 

BYRNE. — The  Practical  Model  Calculator: 

For  the  Engineer,  Mechanic,  Manufacturer  of  Engine  Work,  Naval 
Architect,  Miner  and  Millwright.  By  Oliver  Byrne.  8vo.,  nearly 
600  pages . 54.50 


CABINET  MAKER’S  ALBUM  OF  FURNITURE: 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Designs  for  various  Styles  of  Furniture. 
Illustrated  by  Forty-eight  Large  and  Beautifully  Engraved  Plates. 
Oblong,  8vo.  .........  $3-5° 

CALLINGHAM. — Sign  Writing  and  Glass  Embossing: 

A  Complete  Practical  Illustrated  Manual  of  the  Art.  By  James 

Callingham.  I2mo . $i-5° 

CAMPIN. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Mechanical  Engineering: 
Comprising  Metallurgy,  Moulding,  Casting,  Forging,  Tools,  Work, 
shop  Machinery,  Mechanical  Manipulation,  Manufacture  of  Steam- 
Engines,  etc.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Analysis  of  Iron  and  Iron 
Ores.  By  Francis  Campin,  C.  E.  To  which  are  added,  Observations 
on  the  Construction  of  Steam  Boilers,  and  Remarks  upon  Furnaces 
used  for  Smoke  Prevention ;  with  a  Chapter  on  Explosions.  By  R. 
Armstrong,  C.  E.,  and  John  Bourne.  Rules  for  Calculating  the 
Change  Wheels  for  Screws  on  a  Turning  Lathe,  and  for  a  Wheel¬ 
cutting  Machine.  By  J.  La  Nicca.  Management  of  Steel,  Includ¬ 
ing  Forging,  Hardening,  Tempering,  Annealing,  Shrinking  and 
Expansi  m  ;  and  the  Case-hardening  of  Iron.  By  G.  Ede.  8vo. 
Illustrated  with  twenty-nine  plates  and  100  wood  engravings  $5-°° 


s  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


CAREY. — A  Memoir  of  Henry  C.  Carey. 

By  Dr.  Wm.  Elder.  With  a  portrait.  8vo.,  cloth  .  .  75 

CAREY. — The  Works  of  Henry  C.  Carey : 

Harmony  of  Interests  :  Agricultural,  Manufacturing  and  Commer¬ 


cial.  8vo.  ........  $1.50 

Manual  of  Social  Science.  Condensed  from  Carey’s  “  Principles 
of  Social  Science.”  By  Kate  McKean,  i  vol.  i2mo.  .  #2.25 

Miscellaneous  Works.  With  a  Portrait.  2  vols.  8vo.  $6.00 

Past,  Present  and  Future.  8vo . $2.50 

Principles  of  Social  Science.  3  volumes,  8vo.  .  .  $10.00 


The  Slave-Trade,  Domestic  and  Foreign;  Why  it  Exists,  and 
How  it  may  be  Extinguished  (1853).  8vo.  .  .  .  $ 2.00 

The  Unity  of  Law:  As  Exhibited  in  the  Relations  of  Physical, 
Social,  Mental  and  Moral  Science  (1872).  8vo.  .  .  $3. 50 

CLARK. — Tramways,  their  Construction  and  Working: 

Embracing  0  Comprehensive  History  of  the  System.  With  an  ex¬ 
haustive  analysis  of  the  various  modes  of  traction,  including  horse¬ 
power,  steam,  heated  water  and  compressed  air;  a  description  of  the 
varieties  of  Rolling  stock,  and  ample  details  of  cost  and  working  ex¬ 
penses.  By  D.  Kinnear  Clark.  Illustrated  by  over  200  wood 
engravings,  and  thirteen  folding  plates.  2  vols.  8vo.  .  $12.50 

COLBURN. — The  Locomotive  Engine  : 

Including  a  Description  of  its  Structure,  Rules  for  Estimating  its 
Capabilities,  and  Practical  Observations  on  its  Construction  and  Man¬ 
agement.  By  Zerah  Colburn.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  .  $1.00 

COLLENS. — The  Eden  of  Labor;  or,  the  Christian  Utopia. 

By  T.  Wharton  Collens,  author  of  “  Humanics,”  “The  History 
of  Charity,”  etc.  i2mo.  Paper  cover,  $1.00 ;  Cloth  .  $1.25 

COOLEY. — A  Complete  Practical  Treatise  on  Perfumery: 

Being  a  Hand-book  of  Perfumes,  Cosmetics  and  other  Toilet  Articles. 
With  a  Comprehensive  Collection  of  Formulae.  By  Arnold  J. 
Cooley.  i2mo.  ........  $1.50 

COOPER. — A  Treatise  on  the  use  of  Belting  for  the  Trans¬ 
mission  of  Power. 

With  numerous  illustrations  of  approved  and  actual  methods  of  ar¬ 
ranging  Main  Driving  and  Quarter  Twist  Belts,  and  of  Belt  Fasten¬ 
ings.  Examples  and  Rules  in  great  number  for  exhibiting  and  cal¬ 
culating  the  size  and  driving  power  of  Belts.  Plain,  Particular  and 
Practical  Directions  for  the  Treatment,  Care  and  Management  of 
Belts.  Descriptions  of  many  varieties  of  Beltings,  together  with 
chapters  on  the  Transmission  of  Power  by  Ropes;  by  Iron  and 
Wood  Frictional  Gearing;  on  the  Strength  of  Belting  Leather;  and 
on  the  Experimental  Investigations  of  Morin,  Briggs,  and  others.  By 
John  H.  Cooper,  M.  E.  8vo.  ......  $3.50 

CRAIK. — The  Practical  American  Millwright  and  Miller. 

By  David  Craik,  Millwright.  Illustrated  by  numerous  wood  en¬ 
gravings  and  two  folding  plates.  8vo.  ....  $5.00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


9 


CRISTIANI. — A  Technical  Treatise  on  Soap  and  Candles: 

With  a  Glance  at  the  Industry  of  Fats  and  Oils.  By  R.  S.  Cris- 
tiani,  Chemist.  Author  of  “Perfumery  and  Kindred  Arts.”  Illus¬ 
trated  by  176  engravings.  581  pages,  8vo.  .  .  .  #7.50 

CRISTIANI. — Perfumery  and  Kindred  Arts: 

A  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  Perfumery,  containing  a  History  of 
Perfumes  from  the  remotest  ages  to  the  present  time.  A  complete 
detailed  description  of,  the  various  Materials  and  Apparatus  used  in 
the  Perfumer’s  Art,  with  thorough  Practical  Instruction  and  careful 
Formulae,  and  advice  for  the  fabrication  of  all  known  preparations  of 
the  day,  including  Essences,  Tinctures,  Extracts,  Spirits,  Waters, 
Vinegars,  Pomades,  Powders,  Paints,  Oils,  Emulsions,  Cosmetics, 
Infusions,  Pastilles,  Tooth  Powders  and  Washes,  Cachous,  Hair  Dyes, 
Sachets,  Essential  Oils,  Flavoring  Extracts,  etc. ;  and  full  details  for 
making  and  manipulating  Fancy  Toilet  Soaps,  Shaving  Creams,  etc., 
by  new  and  improved  methods.  With  an  Appendix  giving  hints  and 
advice  for  making  and  fermenting  Domestic  Wines,  Cordials,  Liquors, 
Candies,  Jellies,  Syrups,  Colors,  etc.,  and  for  Perfuming  and  Flavor¬ 
ing  Segars,  Snuff  and  Tobacco,  and  Miscellaneous  Receipts  for 
various  useful  Analogous  Articles.  By  R.  S.  Cristiani,  Con¬ 
sulting  Chemist  and  Perfumer,  Philadelphia.  8vo.  .  .  $5-°° 

CROOKES. — A  Practical  Hand-Book  of  Dyeing  and  Calico 
Printing. 

By  Wm.  Crookes,  F.  R.  S.,  etc.  With  eleven  page  plates,  forty- 
seven  specimens  of  Dyed  and  Printed  Fabrics,  and  thirty-eight  wood 
cuts.  730  pages,  8vo.  .  .  .  .  .  .  $15-°° 

CROOKES. — Select  Methods  in  Chemical  Analysis  (chiefly 
inorganic). 

By  Wm.  Crookes,  F.  R.  S.  Illustrated  with  twenty -two  wood  cuts. 

!2mo.,  468  pages  .  . . #5-°° 

CUPPER. — The  Universal  Stair-Builder  : 

Being  a  new  Treatise  on  the  Construction  of  Stair-Cases  and  Hand- 
Rails;  showing  Plans  of  the  various  forms  of  Stairs,  method  of 
Placing  the  Risers  in  the  Cylinders,  general  method  of  describing 
the  Face  Moulds  for  a  Hand-Rail,  and  an  expeditious  method  of 
Squaring  the  Rail.  Useful  also  to  Stonemasons  constructing  Stone 
Stairs  and  Hand-Rails;  with  a  new  method  of  Sawing  the  dwist 
Part  of  any  Hand-Rail  square  from  the  face  of  the  plank,  and  to  a 
parallel  width.  Also,  a  new  method  of  forming  the  Easings  of  the 
Rail  by  a  gauge ;  preceded  by  some  necessary  Problems  in  Practical 
Geometry,  with  the  Sections  of  Prismatic  Solids.  Illustrated  by  29 
plates.  By  R.  A.  Cupper,  Architect,  author  of  “  The  Practical 
Stair-Builder’s  Guide.”  Third  Edition.  Large  4to.  .  $2-5° 

DAVIDSON.— A  Practical  Manual  of  House  Painting,  Grain¬ 
ing,  Marbling,  and  Sign-Writing : 

Containing  full  information  on  the  processes  of  House  Painting  in 


10 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


Oil  and  Distemper,  the  Formation  of  Letters  and  Practice  of  Sign- 
Writing,  the  Principles  of  Decorative  Art,  a  Course  of  Elementary 
Drawing  for  House  Painters,  Writers,  etc.,  and  a  Collection  of  Useful 
Receipts.  With  nine  colored  illustrations  of  Woods  and  Marbles, 
and  numerous  wood  engravings.  By  Ellis  A.  Davidson.  i2mo. 

$3-oo 

DAVIES. — A  Treatise  on  Metalliferous  Minerals  and  Mining: 

By  D.  C.  Davies,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  Examiner  of  Mines, 
Quarries  and  Collieries.  Illustrated  by  148  engravings  of  Geological 
Formations,  Mining  Operations  and  Machinery,  drawn  from  the 
practice  of  all  parts  of  the  world.  2d  Edition,  i2mo.,  450  pages  $5.00 
DAVIES. — A  Treatise  on  Slate  and  Slate  Quarrying: 

Scientific,  Practical  and  Commercial.  By  D.  C.  Davies,  F.  G.  S., 
Mining  Engineer,  etc.  With  numerous  illustrations  and  folding 
plates.  i2mo.  ........  $2.50 

DAWIDOWSKY — BRANNT. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Fabrication  of  Glue,  Gelatine,  Cements,  Pastes,  Mucilages, 
etc. : 

Comprising  a  Popular  Description  of  these  Industries,  based  upon 
Practical  Experience.  By  F.  Dawidowsky,  Technical  Chemist. 
From  the  German,  with  additions,  by  William  T.  Brannt.  Illus¬ 
trated.  i2mo.  {In  preparation.} 

DE  GRAFF. — The  Geometrical  Stair-Builders’  Guide: 

Being  a  Plain  Practical  System  of  Hand-Railing,  embracing  all  its 
necessary  Details,  and  Geometrically  Illustrated  by  twenty-two  Steel 
Engravings;  together  with  the  use  of  the  most  approved  principles 
of  Practical  Geometry.  By  Simon  De  Graff,  Architect.  4to. 

$2.50 

DE  KONINCK — DIETZ. — A  Practical  Manual  of  Chemical 

Analysis  and  Assaying : 

As  applied  to  the  Manufacture  of  Iron  from  its  Ores,  and  to  Cast  Iron, 
Wrought  Iron,  and  Steel,  as  found  in  Commerce.  By  L.  L.  De 
Koninck,  Dr.  Sc.,  and  E.  Dietz,  Engineer.  Edited  with  Notes,  by 
Robert  Mallet,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  S.  G.,  M.  I.  C.  E.,  etc.  American 
Edition,  Edited  with  Notes  and  an  Appendix  on  Iron  Ores,  by  A.  A. 
Fesquet,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  i2mo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

DUNCAN. — Practical  Surveyor’s  Guide: 

Containing  the  necessary  information  to  make  any  person  of  com¬ 
mon  capacity,  a  finished  land  surveyor  without  the  aid  of  a  teacher. 
By  Andrew  Duncan.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  .  .  .  $1.25 

DUPLAIS. — A  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  and  Distillation 
of  Alcoholic  Liquors : 

Comprising  Accurate  and  Complete  Details  in  Regard  to  Alcohol 
from  Wine,  Molasses,  Beets,  Grain,  Rice,  Potatoes,  Sorghum,  Aspho¬ 
del,  Fruits,  etc.;  with  the  Distillation  and  Rectification  of  Brandy, 
Whiskey,  Rum,  Gin,  Swiss  Absinthe,  etc.,  the  Preparation  of  Aro¬ 
matic  \\  aters.  Volatile  Oils  or  Essences,  Sugars,  Syrups,  Aromatic 
Tinctures,  Liqueurs,  Cordial  Wines,  Effervescing  Wines,  etc.,  the 


& 


'  \  "  -*••  v-.  •  ' 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO’.S  CATALOGUE. 


II 


Ageing  of  Brandy  and  the  improvement  of  Spirits,  with  Copious 
Directions  and  Tables  for  Testing  and  Reducing  Spirituous  Liquors, 
etc.,  etc.  Translated  and  Edited  from  the  French  of  MM.  Duplais, 
Aineetjeune.  By  M.  McKennie,  M.  D.  To  which  are  added  the 
United  States  Internal  Revenue  Regulations  for  the  Assessment  and 
Collection  of  Taxes  on  Distilled  Spirits.  Illustrated  by  fourteen 
folding  plates  and  several  wood  engravings.  743  pp.  8vo.  $ 1000 

DUSSAUCE. — A  General  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of 
Every  Description  of  Soap  : 

Comprising  the  Chemistry  of  the  Art,  with  Remarks  on  Alkalies, 
Saponifiable  Fatty  Bodies,  the  apparatus  necessary  in  a  Soap  Factory, 
Practical  Instructions  in  the  manufacture  of  the  various  kinds  of 
Soap,  the  assay  of  Soaps,  etc.,  etc.  By  Prof.  H.  Dussauce,  Chemist. 
Illustrated.  8vo . $25  00 

DUSSAUCE. — A  General  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of 
Vinegar: 

Theoretical  and  Practical.  Comprising  the  various  Methods,  by  the 
Slow  and  the  Quick  Processes,  with  Alcohol,  Wine,  Grain,  Malt, 
Cider,  Molasses,  and  Beets;  as  well  as  the  Fabrication  of  Wood 
Vinegar,  etc.,  etc.  By  Prof.  H.  Dussauce.  8vo.  .  $5  00 

DUSSAUCE. — A  New  and  Complete  Treatise  on  the  Arts  of 
Tanning,  Currying,  and  Leather  Dressing: 

Comprising  all  the  Discoveries  and  Improvements  made  in  France, 
Great  Britain,  and  the  Linked  States.  Edited  from  Notes  and 
Documents  of  Messrs.  Sallerou,  Grouvelle,  Duval,  Dessables,  Labar- 
raque,  Payen,  Rene,  De  Fontenelle,  Malapeyre,  etc.,  etc.  By  Prof. 
H.  Dussauce,  Chemist.  Illustrated  by  212  wood  engravings. 

8vo. . •  .  .  .  $25  00 

DUSSAUCE.— Practical  Treatise  on  the  Fabrication  of  Matches, 
Gun  Cotton,  and  Fulminating  Powder. 

By  Professor  H.  Dussauce.  i2mo.  .  .  .  .  $3  00 

DYER  AND  COLOR-MAKER’S  COMPANION: 

Containing  upwards  of  two  hundred  Receipts  for  making  Colors,  on 
the  most  approved  principles,  for  all  the  various  styles  and  fabrics  now 
in  existence;  with  the  Scouring  Process,  and  plain  Directions  for 
Preparing,  Washing-off,  and  Finishing  the  Goods.  i2mo.  $1  25 
EASTON. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Street  or  Horse-Power 
Railways  : 

By  Alexander  Easton,  C.  E.  Illustrated  by  23  plates.  8vo.  $3  00 
EDWARDS. — A  Catechism  of  the  Marine  Steam-Engine, 

For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Mechanics.  A  Practical 
Work  for  Practical  Men.  By  Emory  Edwards,  Mechanical  Engi¬ 
neer.  Illustrated  by  sixty-three  Engravings,  including  examples  of 
the  most  modern  Engines.  Third  edition,  thoroughly  revised,  with 
much  additional  matter.  i2mo.  414  pages  .  .  .  $2  00 

EDWARDS. — Modern  American  Locomotive  Engines, 

Their  Design,  Construction  and  Management.  By  Emory  Edwards. 
Illustrated  . . $2  00 


12 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


EDWARDS. — Modern  American  Marine  Engines,  Boilers,  and 
Screw  Propellers, 

Their  Design  and  Construction.  Showing  the  Present  Practice  of 
the  most  Eminent  Engineers  and  Marine  Engine  Builders  in  the 
United  States.  Illustrated  by  30  large  and  elaborate  plates.  4to.  $5.00 
EDWARDS. — The  Practical  Steam  Engineer’s  Guide 

In  the  Design,  Construction,  and  Management  of  American  Stationary, 
Portable,  and  Steam  Fire-Engines,  Steam  Pumps,  Boilers,  Injectors, 
Governors,  Indicators,  Pistons  and  Rings,  Safety  Valves  and  Steam 
Gauges.  For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Steam  Users.  By 
Emory  Edwards.  Illustrated  by  119  engravings.  420  pages. 
l2mo.  ..........  $2  50 

ELDER. — Conversations  on  the  Principal  Subjects  of  Political 
Economy. 

By  Dr.  William  Elder.  8vo. . J2  50 

ELDER. — Questions  of  the  Day, 

Economic  and  Social.  By  Dr.  William  Elder.  8vo.  .  $3  00 

ELDER. — Memoir  of  Henry  C.  Carey. 

By  Dr.  William  Elder.  8vo.  cloth .  75 

ERNI.— Mineralogy  Simplified. 

Easy  Methods  of  Determining  and  Classifying  Minerals,  including 
Ores,  by  means  of  the  Blowpipe,  and  by  Humid  Chemical  Analysis, 
based  on  Professor  von  K obeli’s  Tables  for  the  Determination  of 
Minerals,  with  an  Introduction  to  Modern  Chemistry.  By  Henry 
Erni,  A.M.,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry.  Second  Edition,  rewritten, 
enlarged  and  improved.  121110.  (/«  press.') 

FITCH. — Bessemer  Steel, 

Ores  and  Methods,  New  Facts  and  Statistics  Relating  to  the  Types 
of  Machinery  in  Use,  the  Methods  in  Vogue,  Cost  and  Class  of  Labor 
employed,  and  the  Character  and  Availability  of  the  Ores  utilized  in 
the  Manufacture  of  Bessemer  Steel  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States; 
together  with  opinions  and  excerpts  from  various  accepted  authorities. 
Compiled  and  arranged  by  Thomas  W.  Fitch.  8vo.  .  $3  00 

FLEMING. — Narrow  Gauge  Railways  in  America. 

A  Sketch  of  their  Rise,  Progress,  and  Success.  Valuable  Statistics 
as  to  Grades,  Curves,  Weight  of  Rail,  Locomotives,  Cars,  etc.  By 

Howard  Fleming.  Illustrated,  8vo . $1  50 

FORSYTH. — Book  of  Designs  for  Headstones,  Mural,  and 
other  Monuments : 

Containing  78  Designs.  By  James  Forsyth.  With  an  Introduction 
by  Charles  Boutell,  M.  A.  4  to.,  cloth  .  .  .  $5  00 

FRANKEL — HUTTER. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manu¬ 
facture  of  Starch,  Glucose,  Starch-Sugar,  and  Dextrine  : 
Based  on  the  German  of  Ladislaus  Von  Wagner,  Professor  in  the 
Royal  Technical  High  School,  Buda-Pest,  Hungary,  and  other 
authorities.  By  Julius  Frankel,  Graduate  of  the  Polytechnic 
School  of  Hanover.  Edited  by  Robert  Hutter,  Chemist,  Practical 
Manufacturer  of  Starch-Sugar,  Proprietor  of  the  Philadelphia  Starch- 


\ 


,  •.  •  ,  -  v  , 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


13 


Sugar  Works.  Illustrated  by  58  engravings,  covering  every  branch 
of  the  subject,  including  examples  of  the  most  recent  and  best  Ameri¬ 
can  machinery.  8vo.,  344  pp.  .....  $3.50 

FRAZIER. — Modern  Processes  in  the  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and 
Steel: 

By  B.  W.  Frazier,  Professor  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy  in  Lehigh 
University,  Bethlehem,  Pa.  Elaborately  Illustrated.  ( In  prepar¬ 
ation .) 

GEE. — The  Practical  Gold  Worker  : 

Or,  the  Goldsmith’s  and  Jeweller’s  Instructor  in  the  Art  of  Alloying, 
Melting,  Reducing,  Coloring,  Collecting,  and  Refining;  the  Processes 
of  Manipulation,  Recovery  of  Waste,  Chemical  and  Physical  Proper¬ 
ties  of  Gold,  with  a  New  System  of  Mixing  its  Alloys,  Solders, 
Enamels,  and  other  Useful  Rules  and  Recipes.  By  George  E. 
Gee.  i2mo.  .........  $1.75 

GEE. — The  Silversmith’s  Handbook  : 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of  Silver, 
including  the  different  modes  of  Refining  and  Melting  the  Metal ;  its 
Solders;  the  Preparation  of  Imitation  Alloys;  Methods  of  Manipula¬ 
tion  ;  Prevention  of  Waste ;  Instructions  for  Improving  and  Finishing 
the  Surface  of  the  Work ;  together  with  other  Useful  Information  and 
Memoranda.  By  George  E.  Gee,  Jeweller.  Illustrated.  i2mo. 

$1.75 

GOTHIC  ALBUM  FOR  CABINET-MAKERS: 

Designs  for  Gothic  Furniture.  Twenty-three  plates.  Oblong  $ 2.00 
GREGORY. — Mathematics  for  Practical  Men: 

Adapted  to  the  Pursuits  of  Surveyors,  Architects,  Mechanics,  and 
Civil  Engineers.  By  Olinthus  Gregory.  8vo.,  plates  .  $3.00 

GRIER. — Rural  Hydraulics  : 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Rural  Household  Water  Supply.  Giving  a 
full  description  of  Springs  and  Wells,  of  Pumps  and  Hydraulic  Ram, 
with  Instructions  in  Cistern  Building,  Laying  of  Pipes,  etc.  By  W. 

W.  Grier.  Illustrated  8vo.  . .  75 

GRIMSHAW. — Modern  Milling: 

Being  the  substance  of  two  addresses  delivered  by  request,  at  the 
Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia,  January  19th  and  January  27th, 
1881.  By  Robert  Grimshaw,  Ph.  D.  Edited  from  the  Phono¬ 
graphic  Reports.  With  28  Illustrations.  8vo.  .  .  $1.00 

GRIMSHAW.— Saws  : 

The  History,  Development,  Action,  Classification,  and  Comparison 
of  Saws  of  all  kinds.  With  Copious  Appendices.  Giving  the  details 
of  Manufacture,  Filing,  Setting,  Gumming,  etc.  Care  and  Use  of 
Saws;  Tables  of  Gauges;  Capacities  of  Saw-Mills;  List  of  Saw- 
Patents,  and  other  valuable  information.  By  Robert  Grimshaw. 
Second  and  greatly  enlarged  edition,  with  Supplement ,  and  354  Illus¬ 
trations.  Quarto  ........  $4.00 

GRIMSHAW. — A  Supplement  to  Grimshaw  on  Saws  : 

Containing  additional  practical  matter,  more  especially  relating  to  the 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


Forms  of  Saw-Teeth,  for  special  material  and  conditions,  and  to  the 
Behavior  of  Saws  under  particular  conditions.  120  Illustrations.  By 

Robert  Grimshaw.  Quarto . $2.00 

GRISWOLD. — Railroad  Engineer’s  Pocket  Companion  for  the 
Field : 

Comprising  Rules  for  Calculating  Deflection  Distances  and  Angles, 
Tangential  Distances  and  Angles,  and  all  Necessary  Tables  for  En¬ 
gineers;  also  the  Art  of  Levelling  from  Preliminary  Survey  to  the 
Construction  of  Railroads,  intended  Expressly  for  the  Young  En¬ 
gineer,  together  with  Numerous  Valuable  Rules  and  Examples.  By 

W.  Griswold.  i2mo.,  tucks . $1.75 

GRUNER. — Studies  of  Blast  Furnace  Phenomena; 

By  M.  L.  Gruner,  President  of  the  General  Council  of  Mines  of 
France,  and  lately  Professor  of  Metallurgy  at  the  Ecole  des  Mines. 
Translated,  with  the  author’s  sanction,  with  an  Appendix,  by  L.  D. 
B.  Gordon,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  G.  S.  8vo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

GUETTIER.— Metallic  Alloys: 

Being  a  Practical  Guide  to  their  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties, 
their  Preparation,  Composition,  and  Uses.  Translated  from  the 
French  of  A.  Guettier,  Engineer  and  Director  of  Founderies, 
author  of  “  La  Fouderie  en  France,”  etc.,  etc.  By  A.  A.  Fesquet, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  i2mo.  .....  $3-00 

HASERICK. — The  Secrets  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Wool,  Cotton, 
and  Linen, 

Including  Bleaching  and  Coloring  Wool  and  Cotton  Hosiery  and 
Random  Yarns.  A  Treatise  based  on  Economy  and  Practice.  By 
E.  C.  Haserick.  Illustrated  by  323  Dyed  Patterns  of  the  Yarns 
or  Fabrics.  8vo.  .......  .  $2S.oq 

HATS  AND  FELTING: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  their  Manufacture.  By  a  Practical  Hatter. 
Illustrated  by  Drawings  of  Machinery,  etc.  8vo.  .  .  $1 .25 

HEINZERLING.— Elements  of  the  Fabrication  of  Leather, 
with  Special  Regard  to  the  Latest  Improvements  in  this  Branch  of 
Industry.  A  Manual  for  Tanners,  Technologists,  Etc.  By  Dr.  Chris¬ 
tian  Heinzerling.  Translated  from  the  German  by  William  T. 
Brannt,  Graduate  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College  of  Eldena, 
Prussia.  With  additions  by  an  American  Editor.  Illustrated  by 
numerous  Engravings.  8vo.  {In  preparation.) 

HENRY. — The  Early  and  Later  History  of  Petroleum  : 

With  Authentic  Facts  in  regard  to  its  Development  in  Western  Penn¬ 
sylvania.  With  Sketches  of  the  Pioneer  and  Prominent  Operators, 
together  wiih  the  Refining  Capacity  of-  the  United  States.  By  J.  T. 
Henry.  Illustrated  8vo.  ......  $4-5° 

HOFFER. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Caoutchouc  and  Gutta 
Percha, 

Comprising  the  Properties  of  the  Raw  Materials,  and  the  manner  of 
Mixing  and  Working  them;  with  the  Fabrication  of  Vulcanized  and 
Hard  Rubbers,  Caoutchouc  and  Gutta  Percha  Compositions,  Water- 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


« 


15 


proof  Substances,  Elastic  Tissues,  the  Utilization  of  Waste,  etc.,  etc. 
From  the  German  of  Raimund  Hoffer.  By  W.  T.  Brannt. 
Illustrated  i2mo.  ........  $2.50 

HOFMANN. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of 
Paper  in  all  its  Branches  : 

By  Carl  Hofmann,  Late  Superintendent  of  Paper-Mills  in  Germany 
and  the  United  States ;  recently  Manager  of  the  “  Public  Ledger  ” 
Paper-Mills,  near  Elkton,  Maryland.  Illustrated  by  no  wood  en¬ 
gravings,  and  five  large  Folding  Plates.  4to.,  cloth ;  about  400 

pages . $25.00 

HUGHES. — American  Miller  and  Millwright’s  Assistant: 

By  William  Carter  Hughes.  i2mo . $1.50 

HULME. — Worked  Examination  Questions  in  Plane  Geomet¬ 
rical  Drawing : 

For  the  Use  of  Candidates  for  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Wool¬ 
wich;  the  Royal  Military  College,  Sandhurst;  the  Indian  Civil  En¬ 
gineering  College,  Cooper’s  Hill ;  Indian  Public  Works  and  Tele¬ 
graph  Departments ;  Royal  Marine  Light  Infantry ;  the  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  Local  Examinations,  etc.  By  F.  Edward  Hulmf.,  F.  I.. 
S.,  F.  S.  A.,  Art-Master  Marlborough  College.  Illustrated  by  300 
examples.  Small  quarto  ......  #3-75 

HURST. — A  Hand-Book  for  Architectural  Surveyors  and  others 
Engaged  in  Building : 

Containing  Formulas  useful  in  Designing  Builders’  Work,  Table  of 
Weights,  of  the  Materials  used  in  Building,  Memoranda  connected 
with  Builders’  Work,  Mensuration,  the  Practice  of  Builders’  Measure¬ 
ment,  Contracts  of  Labor,  Valuation  of  Property,  Summary  of  the 
Practice  in  Dilapidation,  etc.,  etc.  By  J.  F.  Hurst,  C.  E.  Second 
edition,  pocket-book  form,  full  bound  ....  $2.00 

JERVIS. — Railroad  Property ; 

A  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of  Railways; 
designed  to  afford  useful  knowledge,  in  the  popular  style,  to  the 
holders  of  this  class  of  property ;  as  well  as  Railway  Managers,  Offi¬ 
cers,  and  Agents.  By  John  B.  Jervis,  late  Civil  Engineer  of  the 
Hudson  River  Railroad,  Croton  Aqueduct,  etc.  i2mo.,  cloth  $2.00 
KEENE. — A  Hand-Book  of  Practical  Gauging: 

For  the  Use  of  Beginners,  to  which  is  added  a  Chapter  on  Distilla¬ 
tion,  describing  the  process  in  operation  at  the  Custom-House  for 
ascertaining  the  Strength  of  Wines.  By  James  B.  Keene,  of  H.  M. 
Customs.  8vo.  $l-25 

KELLEY.— Speeches,  Addresses,  and  Letters  on  Industrial  and 
Financial  Questions : 

By  Hon.  William  D.  Kelley,  M.  C.  544  pages,  8vo.  .  $3-°° 

KELLOGG. — A  New  Monetary  System  : 

The  only  means  of  Securing  the  respective  Rights  of  Labor  and  - 
Property,  and  of  Protecting  the  Public  from  Financial  Revulsions. 
By  Edward  Kellogg.  Revised  from  his  work  on  “  Labor  and 
other  Capital.”  With  numerous  additions  from  his  manuscript. 


16  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


Edited  by  Mary  Kellogg  Putnam.  Fifth  edition.  To  which  is 
added  a  Biographical  Sketch  of  the  Author.  One  volume,  i2mo. 
Paper  cover  .........  $1.00 

Bound  in  cloth  ........  1.50 

KEMLO. — Watch-Repairer’s  Hand-Book : 

Being  a  Complete  Guide  to  the  Young  Beginner,  in  Taking  Apart, 
Putting  Together,  and  Thoroughly  Cleaning  the  English  Lever  and 
other  Foreign  Watches,  and  all  American  Watches.  By  F.  Kemlo, 
Practical  Watchmaker.  With  Illustrations.  i2mo.  .  $1.25 

KENTISH. — A  Treatise  on  a  Box  of  Instruments, 

And  the  Slide  Rule ;  with  the  Theory  of  Trigonometry  and  Loga¬ 
rithms,  including  Practical  Geometry,  Surveying,  Measuring  of  Tim¬ 
ber,  Cask  and  Malt  Gauging,  Heights,  and  Distances.  By  THOMAS 
Kentish.  In  one  volume.  i2mo.  ....  $1.25 

KERL. — The  Assayer’s  Manual: 

An  Abridged  Treatise  on  the  Docimastic  Examination  of  Ores,  and 
Furnace  and  other  Artificial  Products.  By  Bruno  Kerl,  Professor 
in  the  Royal  School  of  Mines ;  Member  of  the  Royal  Technical 
Commission  for  the  Industries,  and  of  the  Imperial  Patent-Office, 
Berlin.  .  Translated  from  the  German  by  William  T.  Brannt, 
Graduate  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College  of  Eldena,  Prussia. 
Edited  by  William  H.  Wahl,  Ph.  D.,  Secretary  of  the  Franklin 
Institute,  Philadelphia.  Illustrated  by  sixty-five  engravings.  8vo. 

$3.00 

KINGZETT. — The  History,  Products,  and  Processes  of  the 
Alkali  Trade  : 

Including  the  most  Recent  Improvements.  By  CHARLES  THOMAS 
Kingzett,  Consulting  Chemist.  With  23  illustrations.  8vo.  $2.50 
KINSLEY. — Self-Instructor  on  Lumber  Surveying: 

For  the  Use  of  Lumber  Manufacturers,  Surveyors,  and  Teachers. 
By  Charles  Kinsley,  Practical  Surveyor  and  Teacher  of  Surveying. 

i2mo . $2.00 

KIRK. — The  Founding  of  Metals: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Melting  of  Iron,  with  a  Description  of  the 
Founding  of  Alloys ;  also,  of  all  the  Metals  and  Mineral  Substances 
used  in  the  Art  of  Founding.  Collected  from  original  sources.  By 
Edward  Kirk,  Practical  Foundryman  and  Chemist.  Illustrated. 

Third  edition.  8vo. . .  $2.50 

KITTREDGE. — The  Compendium  of  Architectural  Sheet- 
Metal  Work : 

Profusely  Illustrated.  Embracing  Rules  and  Directions  for  Estimates, 
Items  of  Cost,  Nomenclature,  Tables  of  Brackets,  Modillions,  Den¬ 
tals,  Trusses,  Stop-Blocks,  Frieze  Pieces,  etc.  Architect’s  Specifica¬ 
tion,  Tables  of  Tin-Roofing,  Galvanized  Iron,  etc.,  etc.  To  which  is 
added  the  Exemplar  of  Architectural  Sheet-Metal  Work,  containing 
details  of  the  Centennial  Buildings,  and  other  important  Sheet-Metal 
Work,  Designs  and  Prices  of  Architectural  Ornaments,  as  manufac¬ 
tured  for  the  Trade  by  the  Kittredge  Cornice  and  Ornament  Com- 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


»7 


pany,  and  a  Catalogue  of  Cornices,  Window-Caps,  Mouldings,  etc.,  as 
manufactured  by  the  Kittredge  Cornice  and  Ornament  Company. 
The  whole  supplemented  by  a  full  Index  and  Table  of  Contents.  By 
A.  O.  Kittredge.  8vo.,  565  pages  ....  $5.00 

LANDRIN. — A  Treatise  on  Steel: 

Comprising  its  Theory,  Metallurgy,  Properties,  Practical  Working, 
and  Use.  By  M.  H.  C.  Landrin,  Jr.,  Civil  Engineer.  Translated 
from  the  French,  with  Notes,  by  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and  En¬ 
gineer.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Bessemer  and  the  Martin  Pro¬ 
cesses  for  Manufacturing  Steel,  from  the  Report  of  Abram  S.  Hewitt, 
United  States  Commissioner  to  the  Jniversal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867. 


I2mo . $3.00 

LARDEN. — A  School  Course  on  Heat: 

By  W.  Larden,  M.  A.  321  pp.  l2mo . $2.00 

LARDNER. — The  Steam-Engine: 


For  the  Use  of  Beginners.  By  Dr.  Lardner.  Illustrated.  i2mo. 

75 

LARKIN. — The  Practical  Brass  and  Iron  Founder’s  Guide; 

A  Concise  Treatise  on  Brass  Founding,  Moulding,  the  Metals  and 
their  Alloys,  etc.;  to  which  are  added  Recent  Improvements  in  the 
Manufacture  of  Iron,  Steel  by  the  Bessemer  Process,  etc.,  etc.  By 
James  Larkin,  late  Conductor  of  the  Brass  Foundry  Department  in 
Reany,  Neafie  &  Co.’s  Penn  Works,  Philadelphia.  Fifth  edition, 
revised,  with  extensive  additions.  l2mo.  .  .  .  #2.25 

LEROUX. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of 
Worsteds  and  Carded  Yarns  : 

Comprising  Practical  Mechanics,  with  Rules  and  Calculations  applied 
to  Spinning;  Sorting,  Cleaning,  and  Scouring  Wools;  the  English 
and  French  Methods  of  Combing,  Drawing,  and  Spinning  Worsteds, 
and  Manufacturing  Carded  Yarns.  Translated  from  the  French  of 
Charles  Leroux,  Mechanical  Engineer  and  Superintendent  of  a 
Spinning-Mill,  by  Horatio  Paine,  M.  D.,  and  A.  A.  Fesquet, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  twelve  large  Plates.  To  which 
is  added  an  Appendix,  containing  Extracts  from  the  Reports  of  the 
International  Jury,  and  of  the  Artisans  selected  by  the  Committee 
appointed  by  the  Council  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  London,  on  Woolen 
and  Worsted  Machinery  and  Fabrics,  as  exhibited  in  the  Paris  Uni¬ 
versal  Exposition,  1867.  8vo.  $5-°° 

LEFFEL. — The  Construction  of  Mill-Dams: 

Comprising  also  the  Building  of  Race  and  Reservoir  Embankments 
and  Head-Gates,  the  Measurement  of  Streams,  Gauging  of  Water 
Supply,  etc.  By  James  Leffel  &  Co.  Illustrated  by  58  engravings. 

8vo . £2.50 

LESLIE. — Complete  Cookery: 

Directions  for  Cookery  in  its  Various  Branches.  By  Miss  Leslie. 
Sixtieth  thousand.  Thoroughly  revised,  with  the  addition  of  New 

Receipts.  In  i2mo.,  cloth . $i-5° 

2 


is 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


LIEBER. — Assayer’s  Guide  : 

Or,  Practical  Directions  to  Assayers,  Miners,  and  Smelters,  for  the 
Tests  and  Assays,  by  Heat  and  by  We.t  Processes,  for  the  Ores  of  all 
the  principal  Metals,  of  Gold  and  Silver  Coins  and  Alloys,  and  of 
Coal,  etc.  By  Oscar  M.  Lieber.  i2mo.  .  .  .  #1.25 

LOVE. — The  Art  of  Dyeing,  Cleaning,  Scouring,  and  Finish¬ 
ing,  on  the  Most  Approved  English  and  French  Methods: 
Being  Practical  Instructions  in  Dyeing  Silks,  Woolens,  and  Cottons, 
Feathers,  Chips,  Straw,  etc.  Scouring  and  Cleaning  Bed  and  Win¬ 
dow  Curtains,  Carpets,  Rugs,  etc.  French  and  English  Cleaning, 
any  Color  or  Fabric  of  Silk,  Satin,  or  Damask.  By  Thomas  Love, 
a  Working  Dyer  and  Scourer.  Second  American  Edition,  to  which 
are  added  General  Instructions  for  the  use  of  Aniline  Colors.  8vo. 

343  Pages  •  •  ■  . . #5-°° 

LUKIN. — Amongst  Machines; 

Embracing  Descriptions  of  the  various  Mechanical  Appliances  used 
in  the  Manufacture  of  Wood,  Metal,  and  other  Substances.  l2mo. 

#i-75 

LUKIN. — The  Boy  Engineers  : 

What  They  Did,  and  How  They  Did  It.  With  30  plates.  l8mo. 

$1.75 

LUKIN. — The  Young  Mechanic  : 

Practical  Carpentry.  Containing  Directions  for  the  Use  of  all  kinds 
of  Tools,  and  for  Construction  of  Steam-Engines  and  Mechanical 
Models,  including  the  Art  of  Turning  in  Wood  and  Metal.  By  John' 
Lukin,  Author  of  “The  Lathe  and  Its  Uses,”  etc.  Illustrated. 

l2tr.o . .  .  .  .  #1.75 

MAIN  and  BROWN. — Questions  on  Subjects  Connected  with 
the  Marine  Steam-Engine: 

And  Examination  Papers;  with  Hints  for  their  Solution.  By 
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and  Thomas  Brown,  Chief  Engineer,  R.  N.  l2mo.,  cloth  .  $1-50 

MAIN  and  BROWN. — The  Indicator  and  Dynamometer: 

With  their  Practical  Applications  to  the  Steam-Engine.  By  Thomas 
J.  Main,  M.  A.  F.  R.,  Ass’t  S.  Professor  Royal  Naval  College, 
Portsmouth,  an"d  Thomas  Brown,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer 
R.  N.,  attached  to  the  R.  N.  College.  Illustrated.  8vo.  .  $1.50 

MAIN  and  BROWN. — The  Marine  Steam-Engine. 

By  Thomas  J.  Main,  F.  R.  Ass’t  S.  Mathematical  Professor  at  the 
Royal  Naval  College,  Portsmouth,  and  Thomas  Brown,  Assoc. 
Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer  R.  N.  Attached  to  the  Royal  Naval 
College.  With  numerous  illustrations.  8vo.  .  .  .  $5.00 

MARTIN. — Screw-Cutting  Tables,  for  the  Use  of  Mechanical 
Engineers  : 

Showing  the  Proper  Arrangement  of  Wheels  for  Cutting  the  Threads 
of  Screws  of  any  Required  Pitch ;  with  a  Table  for  Making  the  Uni¬ 
versal  Gas-Pipe  Thread  and  Taps.  By  W.  A.  Martin,  Engineer. 
8vo. . 


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«9 


MICHELL. — Mine  Drainage: 

Being  a  Complete  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Direct-Acting  Under¬ 
ground  Steam  Pumping  Machinery.  With  a  Description  of  a  large 
number  of  the  best  known  Engines,  their  General  Utility  and  the 
Special  Sphere  of  their  Action,  the  Mode  of  their  Application,  and 
their  Merits  compared  with  other  Pumping  Machinery.  By  Stephen 
Michell.  Illustrated  by  137  engravings.  8vo.,  277  pages  .  $ 6.00 

MOLESWORTH. — Pocket-Book  of  Useful  Formulas  and 
Memoranda  for  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers. 

By  Guilford  L.  Molesworth,  Member  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  Chief  Resident  Engineer  of  the  Ceylon  Railway.  Full- 
bound  in  Pocket-book  form  ......  $i.oc 

MOORE. — The  Universal  Assistant  and  the  Complete  Me¬ 
chanic  : 

Containing  over  one  million  Industrial  Facts,  Calculations,  Receipts, 
Processes,  Trades  Secrets,  Rules,  Business  Forms,  Legal  Items,  Etc., 
in  every  occupation,  from  the  Household  to  the  Manufactory.  By 
R.  Moore.  Illustrated  by  500  Engravings.  i2mo.  .  $2.50 

MORRIS. — Easy  Rules  for  the  Measurement  of  Earthworks  : 
By  means  of  the  Prismoidal  Formula.  Illustrated  with  Numerous 
Wood-Cuts,  Problems,  and  Exanmles,  and  concluded  by  an  Exten¬ 
sive  Table  for  finding  the  Solidity  in  cubic  yards  from  Mean  Areas. 
The  whole  being  adapted  for  convenient  use  by  Engineers,  Surveyors, 
Contractors,  and  others  needing  Correct  Measurements  of  Earthwork. 

By  Elwood  Morris,  C.  E.  8vo . $1.50 

MORTON. — The  System  of  Calculating  Diameter,  Circumfer¬ 
ence,  Area,  and  Squaring  the  Circle : 

Together  with  Interest  and  Miscellaneous  Tables,  and  other  informa¬ 
tion.  By  James  Morton.  Second  Edition,  enlarged,  with  the 
Metric  System.  i2mo.  .......  $1.00 

NAPIER. — Manual  of  Electro- M etallurgy : 

Including  the  Application  of  the  Art  to  Manufacturing  Processes. 
By  James  Napier.  Fourth  American,  from  the  Fourth  London 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrated  by  engravings.  8vo.  #1.50 
NAPIER. — A  System  of  Chemistry  Applied  to  Dyeing. 

By  James  Napier,  F.  C.  S.  A  New  and  Thoroughly  Revised  Edi¬ 
tion.  Completely  brought  up  to  the  present  state  of  the  Science, 
including  the  Chemistry  of  Coal  Tar  Colors,  by  A.  A.  Fesquet, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  Appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico 
Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867.  Illus¬ 
trated.  8vo.  422  pages  .  . . $5 00 

NEVILLE. — Hydraulic  Tables,  Coefficients,  and  Formulae,  for 
finding  the  Discharge  of  Water  from  Orifices,  Notches, 
Weirs,  Pipes,  and  Rivers : 

Third  Edition,  with  Additions,  consisting  of  New  Formulae  for  the 
Discharge  from  Tidal  and  Flood  Sluices  and  Siphons;  general  infor¬ 
mation  on  Rainfall,  Catchment-Basins,  Drainage,  Sewerage,  Water 
Supply  for  Towns  and  Mill  Power.  By  Iohn  Neville,  C.  E.  M.  R. 


i 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


I.  A. ;  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Ireland.  Thick 
I2mo.  ..........  $3.50 

NEWBERY. — Gleanings  from  Ornamental  Art  of  every 
style : 

Drawn  from  Examples  in  the  British,  South  Kensington,  Indian, 
Crystal  Palace,  and  other  Museums,  the  Exhibitions  of  1851  and 
1862,  and  the  best  English  and  Foreign  works.  In  a  series  of  100 
exquisitely  drawn  Plates,  containing  many  hundred  examples.  By 

Robert  Newbery.  4to. . #12.50 

NICHOLLS. — The  Theoretical  and  Practical  Boiler-Maker  and 
Engineer’s  Reference  Book: 

Containing  a  variety  of  Useful  Information  for  Employers  of  Labor, 
Foremen  and  Working  Boiler-Makers,  Iron,  Copper,  and  Tinsmiths, 
Draughtsmen,  Engineers,  the  General  Steam-using  Public,  and  for  thfe 
Use  of  Science  Schools  and  Classes.  By  Samuel  Nicholls.  Illus¬ 
trated  by  sixteen  plates,  i2mo.  .  .  ...  .  #2.50 

NICHOLSON. — A  Manual  of  the  Art  of  Bookbinding : 

Containing  full  instructions  in  the  different  Branches  of  Forwarding, 
Gilding,  and  Finishing.  Also,  the  Art  of  Marbling  Book-edges  and 
Paper.  By  James  B.  Nicholson.  Illustrated.  i2mo.,  cloth  #2.25 
NICOLLS. — The  Railway  Builder: 

A  Hand-Book  for  Estimating  the  Probable  Cost  of  American  Rail¬ 
way  Construction  and  Equipment.  By  William  J.  Nicolls,  Civil 
Engineer.  Illustrated,  full  bound,  pocket-book  form  .  $ 2.00 

NORMANDY. — The  Commercial  Handbook  of  Chemical  An¬ 
alysis  : 

Or  Practical  Instructions  for  the  Determination  of  the  Intrinsic  or 
Commercial  Value  of  Substances  used  in  Manufactures,  in  Trades, 
and  in  the  Arts.  By  A.  Normandy.  New  Edition,  Enlarged,  and 
to  a  great  extent  rewritten.  By  Henry  M.  Noad,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S., 

thick  i2mo . #5-00 

NORRIS. — A  Handbook  for  Locomotive  Engineers  and  Ma¬ 
chinists  : 

Comprising  the  Proportions  and  Calculations  for  Constructing  Loco¬ 
motives;  Manner  of  Setting  Valves;  Tables  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Areas, 
etc.,  etc.  By  Septimus  Norris,  M.  E.  New  edition.  Illustrated, 

i2mo.  . . #1*50 

NORTH. — The  Practical  Assayer: 

Containing  Easy  Methods  for  the  Assay  of  the  Principal  Metals  and 
Alloys.  Principally  designed  for  explorers  and  those  interested  in 
Mines.  By  Oliver  North.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  .  #2.50 

NYSTROM. — A  New  Treatise  on  Elements  of  Mechanics  : 
Establishing  Strict  Precision  in  the  Meaning  of  Dynamical  Terms: 
accompanied  with  an  Appendix  on  Duodenal  Arithmetic  and  Me¬ 
trology.  By  John  W.  Nystrom,  C.  E.  Illustrated.  8vo.  #2.00 

NYSTROM. — On  Technological  Education  and  the  Construc¬ 
tion  of  Ships  and  Screw  Propellers : 

For  Naval  and  Marine  Engineers.  By  John  W.  Nystrom,  late 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


21 


Acting  Chief  Engineer,  U.  S.  N.  Second  edition,  revised,  with  addi¬ 
tional  matter.  Illustrated  by  seven  engravings.  i2mo.  .  $1.50 

O’NEILL. — A  Dictionary  of  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing : 

Containing  a  brief  account  of  all  the  Substances  and  Processes  in 
use  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Printing  Textile  Fabrics  ;  with  Practical 
Receipts  and  Scientific  Information.  By  Charles  O’Neill,  Analy¬ 
tical  Chemist.  To  which  is  added  an  Essay  on  Coal  Tar  Colors  and 
their  application  to  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing.  By  A.  A.  Fesquet, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico 
Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867.  8vo., 

491  pages . $5.00 

ORTON. — Underground  Treasures*. 

How  and  Where  to  Find  Them.  A  Key  for  the  Ready  Determination 
of  all  the  Useful  Minerals  within  the  United  States.  By  James 
Orton,  A.M.,  Late  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  Vassar  College, 
N.  Y.;  Cor.  Mem.  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia, 
and  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History,  New  York;  author  of  the 
“  Andes  and  the  Amazon,”  etc.  A  New  Edition,  with  Additions. 

Illustrated  . . $1.50 

OSBORN. — The  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel : 

Theoretical  and  Practical  in  all  its  Branches ;  with  special  reference 
to  American  Materials  and  Processes.  By  H.  S.  Osborn,  LL.  D., 
Professor  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy  in  Lafayette  College,  Easton, 
Pennsylvania.  Illustrated  by  numerous  large  folding  plates  and 
wood-engravings.  8vo.  ......  $25.00 

OVERMAN. — The  Manufacture  of  Steel : 

Containing  the  Practice  and  Principles  of  Working  and  Making  Steel. 
A  Handbook  for  Blacksmiths  and  Workers  in  Steel  and  Iron,  Wagon 
Makers,  Die  Sinkers,  Cutlers,  and  Manufacturers  of  Files  and  Hard¬ 
ware,  of  Steel  and  Iron,  and  for  Men  of  Science  and  Art.  By 
Frederick  Overman,  Mining  Engineer,  Author  of  the  “  Manu¬ 
facture  of  Iron,”  etc.  A  new,  enlarged,  and  revised  Edition.  By 
A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  i2mo.  .  .  $1.50 

OVERMAN. — The  Moulder’s  and  Founder’s  Pocket  Guide  : 

A  Treatise  on  Moulding  and  Founding  in  Green-sand,  Dry-sand,  Loam, 
and  Cement;  the  Moulding  of  Machine  Frames,  Mill-gear,  Hollow- 
ware,  Ornaments,  Trinkets,  Bells,  and  Statues ;  Description  of  Moulds 
for  Iron,  Bronze,  Brass,  and  other  Metals;  Plaster  of  Paris,  Sulphur, 
Wax,  etc. ;  the  Construction  of  Melting  Furnaces,  the  Melting  and 
Founding  of  Metals ;  the  Composition  of  Alloys  and  their  Nature, 
etc.,  etc.  By  Frederick  Overman,  M.  E.  A  new  Edition,  to 
which  is  added  a  Supplement  on  Statuary  and  Ornamental  Moulding, 
Ordnance,  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  etc.  By  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chem¬ 
ist  and  Engineer. .  Illustrated  by  44  engravings.  l2mo.  .  $2.00 

PAINTER,  GILDER,  AND  VARNISHER’S  COMPANION  : 
Containing  Rules  and  Regulations  in  everything  relating  to  the  Arts 
of  Painting,  Gilding,  Varnishing,  Glass-Staining,  Graining,  Marbling, 
Sign- Writing,  Gilding  on  Glass,  and  Coach  Painting  and  Varnishing; 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


tz 


Tests  for  the  Detection  of  Adulterations  in  Oils,  Colors,  etc. ;  and  & 
Statement  of  the  Diseases  to  which  Painters  are  peculiarly  liable,  with 
the  Simplest  and  Best  Remedies.  Sixteenth  Edition.  Revised,  with 
an  Appendix.  Containing  Colors  and  Coloring — Theoretical  and 
Practical.  Comprising  descriptions  of  a  great  variety  of  Additional 
Pigments,  their  Qualities  and  Uses,  to  which  are  added,  Dryers,  ant? 
Modes  and  Operations  of  Painting,  etc.  Together  with  Chevreul’s 
Principles  of  Harmony  and  Contrast  of  Colors.  l2mo.  Cloth  $1.50 
PALLETT. — The  Miller’s,  Millwright’s,  and  Engineer’s  Guide. 

By  Henry  Pallett.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  .  .  .  $3.00 

PEARSE.— A  Concise  History  of  the  Iron  Manufacture  of  the 
American  Colonies  up  to  the  Revolution,  and  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  until  the  present  time. 

By  John  B.  Pearse.  Illustrated  i2mo.  .  .  .  $2.00 

PERCY. — The  Manufacture  of  Russian  Sheet-Iron. 

By  John  Percy,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  Lecturer  on  Metallurgy  at  the 
Royal  School  of  Mines,  and  to  The  Advance  Class  of  Artillery 
Officers  at  the  Royal  Artillery  Institution,  Woolwich ;  Author  of 
“  Metallurgy.”  With  Illustrations.  8vo.,  paper  .  .  50  cts. 

PERKINS. — Gas  and  Ventilation  : 

Practical  Treatise  on  Gas  and  Ventilation.  With  Special  Relation 
to  Illuminating,  Heating,  and  Cooking  by  Gas.  Including  Scientific 
Helps  to  Engineer-students  and  others.  With  Illustrated  Diagrams. 

By  E.  E.  Perkins.  i2mo.,  cloth . $1.25 

PERKINS  AND  STOWE.— A  New  Guide  to  the  Sheet-iron 
and  Boiler  Plate  Roller  : 

Containing  a  Series  of  Tables  showing  the  Weight  of  Slabs  and  Piles 
to  Produce  Boiler  Plates,  and  of  the  Weight  of  Piles  and  the  Sizes  of 
Bars  to  produce  Sheet-iron;  the  Thickness  of  the  Bar  Gauge 
in  decimals ;  the  Weight  per  foot,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Bar  or 
Wire  Gauge  of  the  fractional  parts  of  an  inch;  the  Weight  per 
sheet,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Wire  Gauge  of  Sheet-iron  of  various 
dimensions  to  weigh  112  lbs.  per  bundle;  and  the  conversion  of 
Short  Weight  into  Long  Weight,  and  Long  Weight  into  Short. 
Estimated  and  collected  by  G.  H.  Perkins  and  J.  G.  Stowe.  $2.50 

POWELL— CHANCE— HARRIS.— The  Principles  of  Glass 
Making. 

By  Harry  J.  Powell,  B.  A.  Together  with  Treatises  on  Crown  and 
Sheet  Glass;  by  Henry  Chance,  M.  A.  And  Plate  Glass,  by  H. 
G.  Harris,  Asso.  M.  Inst.  C.  E.  Illustrated  i8mo.  .  $1.50 

PROTEAUX. — Practical  Guide  for  the  Manufacture  of  Paper 
and  Boards. 

By  A.  Proteaux.  From  the  French,  by  Horatio  Paine,  A.  B., 
M.  D.  To  which  is  added  the  Manufacture  of  Paper  from  Wood, 
by  Henry  T.  Brown.  Illustrated  by  six  plates.  8vo.  .  $>12.50 

PROCTOR. — A  Pocket-Book  of  Useful  Tables  and  Formulae 
for  Marine  Engineers. 

By  Frank  Proctor.  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
Full  bound  pocket-book  form . if 1. 50 


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HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


REGNAULT. — Elements  of  Chemistry. 

By  M.  V.  Regnault.  Translated  from  the  French  by  T.  Forrest 
Betton,  M.  D.,  and  edited,  with  Notes,  by  James  C.  Booth,  Melter 
and  Refiner  U.  S.  Mint,  and  William  L.  Faber.  Metallurgist  and 
Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  nearly  700  wood  engravings.  Com¬ 
prising  nearly  1,500  pages.  In  two  volumes,  8vo.,  cloth  .  $7.50 

.ROPER. — A  Catechism  of  High-Pressure,  or  Non-Condensing 
Steam-Engines  : 

Including  the  Modelling,  Constructing,  and  Management  of  Steam- 
Engines  and  Steam  Boilers.  With  valuable  illustrations.  By  Ste¬ 
phen  Roper,  Engineer.  Sixteenth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
l8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge . $2.00 

ROPER. — Engineer’s  Handy-Book: 

Containing  a  full  Explanation  of  the  Steam-Engine  Indicator,  and  its 
Use  and  Advantages  to  Engineers  and  Steam  Users.  With  Formulae 
for  Estimating  the  Power  of  all  Classes  of  Steam-Engines;  also, 
Facts,  Figures,  Questions,  and  Tables  for  Engineers  who  wish  to 
qualify  themselves  for  the  United  States  Navy,  the  Revenue  Service, 
the  Mercantile  Marine,  or  to  take  charge  of  the  Better  Class  of  Sta¬ 
tionary  Steam-Engines.  Sixth  edition.  l6mo..  690  pages,  tucks, 

gilt  edge . .  .  $3.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book  of  Land  and  Marine  Engines  : 

Including  the  Modelling,  Construction,  Running,  and  Management 
of  Land  and  Marine  Engines  and  Boilers.  With  illustrations.  By 
Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.  Sixth  edition.  i2mo.,t\'cks,  gilt  edge. 

$3-50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book  of  the  Locomotive  : 

Including  the  Construction  of  Engines  and  Boilers,  and  the  Construc¬ 
tion,  Management,  and  Running  of  Locomotives.  By  Stephen 
Roper.  Eleventh  edition.  i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge  .  $2.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book  of  Modern  Steam  Eire-Engines. 

With  illustrations.  By  Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.  Fourth  edition, 

i2mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge . #3-5° 

ROPER. — Questions  and  Answers  for  Engineers. 

This  little  book  contains  all  the  Questions  that  Engineers  will  be 
asked  when  undergoing  an  Examination  for  the  purpose  of  procuring 
Licenses,  and  they  are  so  plain  that  any  Engineer  or  Fireman  of  or¬ 
dinary  intelligence  may  commit  them  to  memory  in  a  short  time.  By 
Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.  Third  edition  .  .  .  $3. 00 

ROPER. — Use  and  Abuse  of  the  Steam  Boiler. 

By  Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.  Eighth  edition,  with  illustrations. 
l8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge  .......  $ 2.00 

ROSE. — The  Complete  Practical  Machinist : 

Embracing  Lathe-Work,  Vise-Work,  Drills  and  Drilling,  Taps  and 
Dies,  Hardening  and  Tempering,  the  Making  and  Use  of  Tools,  Tool 
Grinding,  Marking  Out  Work,  etc.  By  Joshua  Rose,  Author  of  “  The 
Pattern-maker’s  Assistant”  and  “The  Slide  Valve.”  Illustrated  by 
196  engravings.  Eighth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged  by  the  addition 
of  much  new  matter.  l2mo.,  441  pages  .  .  .  $2.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


ROSE. — Mechanical  Drawing  Self-Taught: 

Comprising  Instructions  in  the  Selection  and  Preparation  of  Drawing 
Instruments,  Elementary  Instruction  in  Practical  Mechanical  Draw¬ 
ing,  together  with  Examples  in  Simple  Geometry  and  Elementary 
Mechanism,  including  Screw  Threads,  Gear  Wheels,  Mechanical  Mo¬ 
tions,  Engines  and  Boilers.  By  Joshua  Rose,  M.  E.,  Author  of 
“  The  Complete  Practical  Machinist,”  “  The  Pattern-maker’s  Assist¬ 
ant,”  “The  Slide-valve.”  Illustrated  by  330  engravings.  8vo.,  313 
pages  ..........  #4.00 

ROSE. — The  Slide-Valve  Practically  Explained: 

Embracing  simple  and  complete  Practical  Demonstrations  of  the 
operation  of  each  element  in  a  Slide-valve  Movement,  and  illustrating 
the  effects  of  Variations  in  their  Proportions  by  examples  carefully 
selected  from  the  most  recent  and  successful  practice.  By  Joshua 
Rose,  M.  E.,  Author  of  “  The  Complete  Practical  Machinist,”  “  The 
Pattern-maker’s  Assistant,”  etc.  Illustrated  by  35  engravings  $1.00 
ROSELEUR — WAHL. — Galvanoplastic  Manipulations  : 

A  Practical  Guide  for  the  Gold  and  Silver  Electroplater  and  the  Gal¬ 
vanoplastic  Operator.  Comprising  the  Electro-Deposition  of  all 
Metals  by  means  of  the  Battery  and  the  Dynamo-Electric  Machine, 
as  well  as  the  most  approved  Processes  of  Deposition  by  Simple  Im¬ 
mersion,  with  Descriptions  of  Apparatus,  Chemical  Products  employed 
in  the  Art,  etc.  Based  largely  on  the  “  Manipulations  Hydroplas- 
tiques  ”  of  Alfred  Roseleur.  By  William  H.  Wahl,  Ph.  D. 
(Heid.),  Secretary  of  the  Franklin  Institute.  Illustrated  by  189  en¬ 
gravings.  8vo.,  656  pages . #7.50 

SHAW. — Civil  Architecture  : 

Being  a  Complete  Theoretical  and  Practical  System  of  Building,  con¬ 
taining  the  Fundamental  Principles  of  the  Art.  By  Edward  Shaw, 
Architect.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  Gothic  Architecture,  etc. 
By  Thomas  W.  Silloway  and  George  M.  Harding,  Architects. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  102  quarto  plates  finely  engraved  on  copper. 

Eleventh  edition.  4to . .  $10.00 

SHUNK. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Railway  Curves  and  Loca¬ 
tion,  for  Young  Engineers. 

By  William  F.  Shunk,  Civil  Engineer.  i2mo.  Full  bound  pocket- 
book  form  .........  $ 2.00 

SLATER. — The  Manual  of  Colors  and  Dye  Wares. 

By  J.  W.  Slater.  i2mo . #3-75 

SLOAN. — American  Houses: 

A  variety  of  Original  Designs  for  Rural  Buildings.  Illustrated  by 
twenty-six  colored  Engravings,  with  Descriptive  References.  By 

Samuel  Sloan,  Architect,  author  of  the  “  Model  Architect,”  etc. 
etc.  8vo. . $1.50 

SLOAN. — Homestead  Architecture : 

Containing  Forty  Designs  for  Villas,  Cottages,  and  Farm-houses,  with 
Essays  on  Style,  Construction,  Landscape  Gardening,  Furniture,  etc., 
etc.  Illustrated  by  upwards  of  200  engravings.  By  Samuel  Sloan, 
Architect.  8vo . $3.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


SMEATON. — Builder’s  Pocket-Companion : 

Containing  the  Elements  of  Building,  Surveying,  and  Architecture ; 
with  Practical  Rules  and  Instructions  connected  with  the  subject.  By 
A.  C.  Smeaton,  Civil  Engineer,  etc.  i2mo.  .  .  .  $1.50 

SMITH. — A  Manual  of  Political  Economy. 

By  E.  Peshine  Smith.  A  new  Edition,  to  which  is  added  a  full 

Index.  l2mo. . $1.25 

SMITH. — Parks  and  Pleasure-Grounds: 

Or  Practical  Notes  on  Country  Residences,  Villas,  Public  Parks,  and 
Gardens.  By  Charles  H.  J.  Smith,  Landscape  Gardener  and 
Garden  Architect,  etc.,  etc.  i2mo.  ....  $2.00 

SMITH. — The  Dyer’s  Instructor: 

Comprising  Practical  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Silk,  Cotton, 
Wool,  and  Worsted,  and  Woolen  Goods ;  containing  nearly  800 
Receipts.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Padding;  and 
the  Printing  of  Silk  Warps,  Skeins,  and  Handkerchiefs,  and  the 
various  Mordants  and  Colors  for  the  different  styles  of  such  work. 
By  David  Smith,  Pattern  Dyer.  i2mo.  .  .  .  $3.00 

SMYTH. — A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  Coal  and  Coal-Mining. 
By  Warrington  W.  Smyth,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  G.,  President  R.  G.  S. 
of  Cornwall.  Fifth  edition,  revised  and  corrected.  With  numer¬ 
ous  illustrations.  l2mo.  ......  $1.75 

SNIVELY. — A  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Perfumes  and 
Kindred  Toilet  Articles. 

By  John  H.  Snively,  Phr.  D.,  Professor  of  Analytical  Chemistry  in 
the  Tennessee  College  of  Pharmacy.  8vo.  .  .  .  $3.00 

SNIVELY. — Tables  for  Systematic  Qualitative  Chemical  Anal¬ 
ysis. 

By  John  H.  Snively,  Phr.  D.  8vo . $1.00 

SNIVELY. — The  Elements  of  Systematic  Qualitative  Chemical 
Analysis : 

A  Hand-book  for  Beginners.  By  John  H.  Snively,  Phr.  D.  i6mo. 

$2.00 

STEWART. — The  American  System  : 

Speeches  on  the  Tariff  Question,  and  on  Internal  Improvements, 
principally  delivered  in  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States.  By  Andrew  Stewart,  late  M.  C.  from  Pennsylvania. 
With  a  Portrait,  and  a  Biographical  Sketch.  8vo.  .  .  $3.00 

STOKES. — The  Cabinet-Maker  and  Upholsterer’s  Companion  : 

Comprising  the  Art  of  Drawing,  as  applicable  to  Cabinet  Work; 
Veneering,  Inlaying,  and  Buhl- Work;  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Stain¬ 
ing  Wood,  Ivory,  Bone,  Tortoise-Shell,  etc.  Directions  for  Lacker- 
ing,  Japanning,  and  Varnishing;  to  make  French  Polish,  Glues, 
Cements,  and  Compositions;  with  numerous  Receipts,  useful  to  work¬ 
men  generally.  By  J.  Stokes.  Illustrated.  A  New  Edition,  with 
an  Appendix  upon  French  Polishing,  Staining,  Imitating,  Varnishing, 
etc.,  etc.  . . $1-25 


26  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


STRENGTH  AND  OTHER  PROPERTIES  OF  METALS: 

Reports  of  Experiments  on  the  Strength  and  other  Properties  of 
Metals  for  Cannon.  With  a  Description  of  the  Machines  for  Testing 
Metals,  and  of  the  Classification  of  Cannon  in  service.  By  Officers 
of  the  Ordnance  Department,  U.  S.  Army.  By  authority  of  the  Secre¬ 
tary  of  War.  Illustrated  by  25  large  steel  plates.  Quarto  .  $10.00 

SULLIVAN. — Protection  to  Native  Industry. 

By  Sir  Edward  Sullivan,  Baronet,  author  of  “  Ten  Chapters  on 
.  Social  Reforms.”  8vo.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  $1.50 

SYME. — Outlines  of  an  Industrial  Science. 

By  David  Syme.  i2mo. . $2.00 

TABLES  SHOWING  THE  WEIGHT  OF  ROUND, 
SQUARE,  AND  FLAT  BAR  IRON,  STEEL,  ETC.,  I 
By  Measurement.  Cloth  .  .  .  .  .  .  163 

TAYLOR. — Statistics  of  Coal : 

Including  Mineral  Bituminous  Substances  employed  in  Arts  and 
Manufactures;  with  their  Geographical,  Geological,  and  Commercial 
Distribution  and  Amount  of  Production  and  Consumption  on  the 
American  Continent.  With  Incidental  Statistics  of  the  Iron  Manu¬ 
facture.  By  R.  C.  Taylor.  Second  edition,  revised  by  S.  S.  Halde- 
man.  Illustrated  by  five  Maps  and  many  wood  engravings.  8vo., 
cloth  ..........  $10.00 

TEMPLETON. — The  Practical  Examinator  on  Steam  and  the 
*  Steam-Engine: 

With  Instructive  References  relative  thereto,  arranged  for  the  Use  of 
Engineers,  Students,  and  others.  By  William  Templeton,  En¬ 
gineer.  i2mo.  ........  $1.25 

THAUSING.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Preparation  of 
Malt  and  the  Fabrication  of  Beer: 

With  especial  reference  to  the  Vienna  Process  of  Brewing.  Elab¬ 
orated  from  personal  experience  by  Julius  E.  Thausing,  Professor 
at  the  School  for  Brewers,  and  at  the  Agricultural  Institute,  MSdling, 
near  Vienna.  Translated  from  the  German  by  William  T.  Brannt, 
Graduate  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College  of  Eldena,  Prussia. 
Thoroughly  and  elaborately  edited,  with  much  American  matter,  and 
according  to  the  latest  and  most  Scientific  Practice,  by  A.  Schwarz, 
Graduate  of  the  Polytechnic  School  in  Prague,  Director  of  the  First 
Scientific  Station  for  Brewing  in  the  United  States,  Publisher  of 
“  The  American  Brewer,”  and  Di  ,  A.  H.  Bauer,  M.  A.  C.  S.,  An¬ 
alytical  Chemist,  and  Superintendent  of  the  above  Station,  Editor  of 
“The  American  Brewer.”  Illustrated  by  140  engravings.  8vo. 
8*5  pages  .........  $10.00 

THOMAS. — The  Modern  Practice  of  Photography. 

By  R.  W.  Thomas,  F.  C.  S.  8vo.  ....  75 

THOMPSON. — Political  Economy.  With  Especial  Reference 
to  the  Industrial  History  of  Nations. 

By  Robert  E.  Thompson,  M.  A.,  Professor  of  Social  Science  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  i2mo.  ....  $1.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


27 


Burner's  (the)  companion: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Concentric,  Elliptic,  and  Eccentric  Turn¬ 
ing;  also  various  Plates  of  Chucks,  Tools,  and  Instruments;  and 
Directions  for  using  the  Eccentric  Cutter,  Drill,  Vertical  Cutter,  and 
Circular  Rest;  with  Patterns  and  Instructions  for  working  them. 

i2mo . $1.25 

TURNING:  Specimens  of  Fancy  Turning  Executed  on  the 
Hand  or  Foot-Lathe : 

With  Geometric,  Oval,  and  Eccentric  Chucks,  and  Elliptical  Cutting 
Frame.  By  an  Amateur.  Illustrated  by  30  exquisite  Photographs. 
4to. . $3.00 

URBIN — BRULL. — A  Practical  Guide  for  Puddling  Iron  and 
Steel. 

By  Ed.  Urbin,  Engineer  of  Arts  and  Manufactures.  A  Prize  Essay, 
read  before  the  Association  of  Engineers,  Graduate  of  the  School  of 
Mines,  of  Liege,  Belgium,  at  the  Meeting  of  1865-6.  To  which  is 
added  A  Comparison  of  the  Resisting  Properties  of  Iron  and 
Steel.  By  A.  Brull.  Translated  from  the  French  by  A.  A.  Fes- 
QUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  8vo.  .  .  .  .  $1.00 

VAILE. — Galvanized-Iron  Cornice-Worker’s  Manual: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Laying  out  the  Different  Mitres,  and 
Making  Patterns  for  all  kinds  of  Plain  and  Circular  Work.  Also, 
Tables  of  Weights,  Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  and  other 
Matter  calculated  to  Benefit  the  Trade.  By  Charles  A.  Vaile. 
Illustrated  by  twenty-one  plates.  4to.  ....  $5-°° 


VILLE. — On  Artificial  Manures  : 

Their  Chemical  Selection  and  Scientific  Applicatioh  to  Agriculture. 
A  series  of  Lectures  given  at  the  Experimental  Farm  at  Vincennes, 
during  1867  and  1874-75.  By  M.  Georges  Ville.  Translated  and 
Edited  by  William  Crookes,  F.  R.  S.  Illustrated  by  thirty-one 
engravings.  8vo.,  450  pages  ......  $6.00 

VILLE.— The  School  of  Chemical  Manures  : 

Or,  Elementary  Principles  in  the  Use  of  Fertilizing  Agents.  From 
the  French  of  M.  Geo.  Ville,  by  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and  En¬ 
gineer.  With  Illustrations.  l2mo.  .  .  .  .  $!-25 

VOGDES.— The  Architect’s  and  Builder’s  Pocket-Companion 
and  Price-Book  : 

Consisting  of  a  Short  but  Comprehensive  Epitome  of  Decimals,  Duo¬ 
decimals,  Geometry  and  Mensuration;  with  Tables  of  United  States 
Measures,  Sizes,  Weights,  Strengths,  etc.,  of  Iron,  Wood,  Stone, 
Brick,  Cement  and  Concretes,  Quantities  of  Materials  in  given  Sizes 
and  Dimensions  of  Wood,  Brick  and  Stone;  and  full  and  complete 
Bills  of  Prices  for  Carpenter’s  Work  and  Painting;  also,  Rules  for 
Computing  and  Valuing  Brick  and  Brick  Work,  Stone  Work,  Paint- 
jnCT)  Plastering,  with  a  Vocabulary  of  Technical  Teims,  etc.  By 
Frank  W.  Vogdes,  Architect,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  Enlarged,  revised, 
and  corrected.  In  one  volume,  368  pages,  full-bound,  pocket-book 
form,  gilt  edges . $2.00 

Cloth  .  . J-5° 


28 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


WARE. — The  Sugar  Beet. 

Including  a  History  of  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry  in  Europe,  Varieties 
of  the  Sugar  Beet,  Examination,  Soils,  Tillage,  Seeds  and  Sowing, 
Yield  and  Cost  of  Cultivation,  Harvesting,  Transportation,  Conserva¬ 
tion,  Feeding  Qualities  of  the  Beet  and  of  the  Pulp,  etc.  By  Lewis 
S.  Ware,  C.  E.,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  ninety  engravings.  8vo. 

$4.00 

WARN. — The  Sheet-Metal  Worker’s  Instructor: 

For  Zinc,  Sheet-Iron,  Copper,  and  Tin-Plate  Workers,  etc.  Contain¬ 
ing  a  selection  of  Geometrical  Problems ;  also,  Practical  and  Simple 
Rules  for  Describing  the  various  Patterns  required  in  the  different 
branches  of  the  above  Trades.  By  Reuben  H.  Warn,  Practical 
Tin-Plate  Worker.  To  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  containing 
Instructions  for  Boiler-Making,  Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids, 
Rules  for  Calculating  the  Weights  of  different  Figures  of  Iron  and 
Steel,  Tables  of  the  Weights  of  Iron,  Steel,  etc.  Illustrated  by  thirty- 
two  Plates  and  thirty-seven  Wood  Engravings.  8vo.  .  #3.00 

WARNER. — New  Theorems,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  for  the 
Computation  of  Earth-work :  » 

Designed  for  the  use  of  Engineers  in  Preliminary  and  Final  Estimates, 
of  Students  in  Engineering,  and  of  Contractors  and  other  non-profes¬ 
sional  Computers.  In  two  parts,  with  an  Appendix.  Part  I.  A  Prac¬ 
tical  Treatise;  Part  II.  A  Theoretical  Treatise,  and  the  Appendix. 
Containing  Notes  to  the  Rules  and  Examples  of  Part  I. ;  Explana¬ 
tions  of  the  Construction  of  Scales,.  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  and  a 
Treatise  upon  Equivalent  Square  Bases  and  Equivalent  Level  Heights. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  numerous  original  engravings,  comprising 
explanatory  cuts  for  Definitions  and  Problems,  Stereometric  Scales 
and  Diagrams,  and  a  series  of  Lithographic  Drawings  from  Models : 
Showing  all  the  Combinations  of  Solid  Forms  which  occur  in  Railroad 
Excavations  and  Embankments.  By  JOHN  Warner,  A.  M.,  Mining 
and  Mechanical  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  14  Plates.  A  new,  revised 
and  improved  edition.  8vo.  ......  $4.00 

WATSON. — A  Manual  of  the  Hand-Lathe  : 

Comprising  Concise  Directions  for  Working  Metals  of  all  kinds, 
Ivory,  Bone  and  Precious  Woods;  Dyeing,  Coloring,  and  French 
Polishing;  Inlaying  by  Veneers,  and  various  methods  practised  to 
produce  Elaborate  work  with  Dispatch,  and  at  Small  Expense.  By 
Egbert  P.  Watson,  Author  of  “  The  Modern  Practice  of  American 
Machinists  and  Engineers.”  Illustrated  by  78  engravings.  $1,50 

WATSON. — The  Modern  Practice  of  American  Machinists  and 
Engineers  : 

Including  the  Construction,  Application,  and  Use  of  Drills,  Lathe 
Tools,  Cutters  for  Boring  Cylinders,  and  Hollow-work  generally',  with 
the  most  Economical  Speed  for  the  same ;  the  Results  verified  by 
Actual  Practice  at  the  Lathe,  the  Vise,  and  on  the  Floor.  Together 


v 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


29 


with  Workshop  Management,  Economy  of  Manufacture,  the  Steam- 
Engine,  Boilers,  Gears,  Belting,  etc.,  etc.  By  Egbert  P.  Watson. 
Illustrated  by  eighty-six  engravings.  i2mo.  .  .  .  #2.50 

WATSON. — The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Art  of  Weaving 
by  Hand  and  Power  : 

With  Calculations  and  Tables  for  the  Use  of  those  connected  with  the 
Trade.  By  John  Watson,  Manufacturer  and  Practical  Machine- 
Maker.  Illustrated  by  large  Drawings  of  the  best  Power  Looms. 

8vo.  •  . $7-5° 

WEATHERLY. — Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Boiling  Sugar,  Crys¬ 
tallizing,  Lozenge-making,  Comfits,  Gum  Goods, 

And  other  processes  for,  Confectionery,  etc.,  in  which  are  explained, 
in  an  easy  and  familiar  manner,  the  various  Methods  of  Manufactur¬ 
ing  every  Description  of  Raw  and  Refined  Sugar  Goods,  as  sold  by 

Confectioners  and  others.  i2mo . $1.50 

WEDDING. — Elements  of  the  Metallurgy  of  Iron. 

By  Dr.  Hermann  Wedding,  Royal  Privy  Counsellor  of  Mines,  Ber¬ 
lin,  Prussia.  Translated  from  the  second  revised  and  rewritten  Ger¬ 
man  edition.  By  William  T.  Brannt,  Graduate  of  the  Royal  Ag¬ 
ricultural  College  at  Eldena,  Prussia.  Edited  by  William  H. 
Wahl,  Ph.  D.,  Secretary  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia. 
Illustrated  by  about  250  engravings.  8vo.,  about  500  pages  ( In  prep¬ 
aration.')  ......... 

WEINHOLD. — Introduction  to  Experimental  Physics,  Theo¬ 
retical  and  Practical. 

Including  directions  for  Constructing  Physical  Apparatus  and  for 
Making  Experiments.  By  Adolf  F.  Weinhold,  Professor  in  the 
Royal  Technical  School  at  Chemnitz.  Translated  and  edited,  with 
the  author’s  sanction,  by  Benjamin  Loewy,  F.  R.  A.  S.,  with  a 
preface,  by  G.  C.  Foster,  F.  R.  S.  Illustrated  by  three  colored  plates 
and  404  wood-cuts.  8vo.,  848  pages  ....  $6.00 

WILL. — Tables  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis. 

With  an  Introductory  Chapter  on  the  Course  of  Analysis.  By  Pro¬ 
fessor  Heinrich  Will,  of  Giessen,  Germany.  Third  American, 
from  the  eleventh  German  edition.  Edited  by  Charles  F.  Himes, 
Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Natural  Science,  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa. 
8vo.  $1-5° 

WILLIAMS.— On  Heat  and  Steam : 

Embracing  New  Views  of  Vaporization,  Condensation,  and  Explo¬ 
sion.  By  Charles  Wye  Williams,  A.  I.  C.  E.  Illustrated  8vo. 

$3S° 

WILSON. — A  Treatise  on  Steam  Boilers  : 

Their  Strength,  Construction,  and  Economical  Working.  By  Robert 
Wilson.  Illustrated  i2mo.  ......  $2.50 

WILSON. — Cotton  Carder’s  Companion : 

In  which  is  given  a  description  of  the  manner  of  Picking,  Baling, 
Marketing,  Opening,  and  Carding  Cotton ;  to  which  is  added  a  list  of 
valuable  tables,  Rules,  and  Receipts,  by  Foster  Wilson.  i2mo. 

Si. 50 


3° 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.’S  CATALOGUE. 


WILSON. — First  Principles  of  Political  Economy: 

With  Reference  to  Statesmanship  and  the  Progress  of  Civilization. 
By  Professor  W.  D.  Wilson,  of  the  Cornell  University.  A  new  and 
revised  edition.  l2mo.  .......  $ 1.50 

WOHLER. — A  Hand  book  of  Mineral  Analysis. 

By  F.  Wohler,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Gottin¬ 
gen.  Edited  by  Henry  B.  Nason,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the 
Renssalaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy,  New  York.  Illustrated 
i2mo.  ..........  $3.00 

WORSSAM. — On  Mechanical  Saws: 

From  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Engineers,  1869.  By  S.  W. 
Worssam,  Jr.  Illustrated  by  eighteen  large  plates.  8vo.  .  #2.50 


FAIRBAIRN. — The  Principles  of  Mechanism  and  Machinery 
of  Transmission  • 

Comprising  the  Principles  of  Mechanism,  Wheels,  and  Pulleys, 
Strength  and  Proportion  of  Shafts,  Coupling  of  Shafts,  and  Engag¬ 
ing  and  Disengaging  Gear.  By  Sir  William  Fairbairn,  Bart. 
C.  E.  Beautifully  illustrated  by  over  150  wood-cuts.  In  one 
volume,  i2mo  . . $2.50 

RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSAINT.— A  Practical 
Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Colors  for  Painting: 

Comprising  the  Origin,  Definition,  and  Classification  of  Colors ;  the 
Treatment  of  the  Raw  Materials ;  the  best  Formulae  and  the  Newest 
Processes  for  the  Preparation  of  every  description  of  Pigment,  and 
the  Necessary  Apparatus  and  Directions  for  its  Use;  Dryers;  the 
Testing,  Application,  and  Qualities  of  Paints,  etc.,  etc.  By  MM. 
Riffault,  Vergnaud,  and  Toussaint.  Revised  and  Edited  by  M. 
F.  Malepeyre.  Translated  from  the  French,  by  A.  A.  Fesquet, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  Eighty  engravings.  In  one 
vol.,  8vo.,  659  pages . $7.50 

THOMSON. — Freight  Charges  Calculator: 

By  Andrew  Thomson,  Freight  Agent.  241110.  .  .  $1.25 

This  useful  little  volume  comprises  Tables  for  the  Calculation  of 
Freight  at  all  prices  per  100  lbs.  from  one  cent  to  one  dollar. 

WIGHTWICK. — Hints  to  Young  Architects: 

Comprising  Advice  to  those  who,  while  yet  at  school,  are  destined 
to  the  Profession ;  to  such  as,  having  passed  their  pupilage,  are  about 
to  travel ;  and  to  those  who,  having  completed  their  education,  are 
about  to  practise.  Together  with  a  Model  Specification  involving  a 
great  variety  of  instructive  and  suggestive  matter.  By  George 
M  ightwick,  Architect.  A  new  edition,  revised  and  considerably 
enlarged;  comprising  Treatises  on  the  Principles  of  Construction 
and  Design.  By  G.  Huskisson  Guillaume,  Architect.  Numerous 
Illustrations.  One  vol.  i2mo .  ,  *2.oo 


* 


GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY  Cl 

TP  827  024  1884  BKS 

c.  1  Davis.  Charles  Thoma 

A  practical  treatise  on  the  manufacture 


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